Nebby, Moses etc

Welcome to the 2026 July Blog folks! This month’s study continues our work in the ancient Persian Empire, specifically with King’s Darius I, Artaxerxes I, & Xerxes 1, in their transitions of royal power. Our approach to the topic assumes
Queen Esther’s husband was Darius, due to Mordecai’s age, thus a goal of this study is to find the identity of Xerxes’ wife. However, we ought consider evidence from other views for a well rounded context. First, we’d like to lay a chronology for the end of Darius’ reign, opening to Xerxes’ rule. To align this chronology, we refer to a key period in history aligned with the co-regency of Xerxes 1 and Darius 1. A key reference to aid us in our search of this co-regency we find by Gerard Gertoux , is related to the astronomical intercalations of this period:

Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I has sparked a
chronological debate among Greek historians as to whether Xerxes died in 475 BC, according to Herodotus and Thucydides, or in 465 BC, according to the Babylonian royal lists, was decided by the famed Greek astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy, who published around 150 AD the Babylonian (and Achaemenid) chronology dated after the Nabonassar era, which began in 748 BC. Claudius Ptolemy converted all Babylonian dates into the Egyptian civil calendar, which allowed him to verify historical synchronisms with Egyptian chronology. He also verified the accuracy of some lunar eclipses mentioned in astronomical tablets dated in Year of the King (Almagest). A result of Ptolemy’s reliance on verifiably–dated eclipses, all historians after 150 AD, without exception, adopted this Babylonian chronology and modified the Greek chronology to bring it into line with this new absolute chronology of the Achaemenid period. The Babylonian chronology established by Claudius Ptolemy was confirmed by the BM 34576 tablet (copy of the King List dated 99 BC). A study of all tablets (contracts or inscriptions) dated during the period 626–331 BC was published (Parker, Dubberstein: 1956) and demonstrated that all durations of the Achaemenid period agreed with those of the Babylonian royal lists, providing several short
co-regencies were admitted shortly before and during the enthronement of     the new king.” #1

The accession of Xerxes in year 26 of Darius I (496 BC) occurred in a normal year, made his first year of reign an intercalary year (in Babylon), but since Xerxes resided in Persepolis the Persian astronomical priests did not add   an intercalary month at year’s end (XIIb), they visibly began a new cycle of  intercalation from the 2nd year of Xerxes (2U), shifting Xerxes intercalation cycle, that began in Persepolis (Ossendrijver: 2018, 141), from that of Darius. The intercalation cycle began during the reign of Xerxes, continuing till the end of Artaxerxes I’ reign. #2 In our last 2 blog-studies we presented Eclipse evidence for the Death of Xerxes in 475BC from Gerard Gertoux. #3  We find in 475 BC the Moon was 20° behind Sagittarius, and in 465 BC it was in the sign Sagittarius. According to an astronomical tablet the 1st lunar eclipse [total] was: in Sagittarius‘ 4 rear stars in [475 BC]. Thus, according to the astronomy, Xerxes died (14/V/21) on Wed. 23, August 475 BC with his accession 21 years earlier in 496 BC, also Darius I’ Year 26. Despite Pierre Briant denying his co–regency due to his ideology, he admits Xerxes was Crown Prince long before Darius‘ death, because if Xerxes became Crown Prince just before the death  of Darius, one would have to admit that this king waited a long time-till he was 72 years old in 486 BC#43/4, as Xerxes was 35 yrs old, when his parent’s union dated to Darius’ accession in 522 BC. Consequently, this chronology involves Xerxes’ choice before 490 BC. #44/5. In fact, Xerxes was both the crown prince and co–regent, in a 10-year co-regency, with his accession from 496BC till the death of Darius in 486BC. 
Alignment depends on Accession Date. The alignment of the Persian & Jewish years of Xerxes to any postdated reign, depends on whether the Persian or Jewish New Year came first after the accession. If Xerxes’ year 21 on a Persian Calendar was 465, his year 1 was 485 BC, from spring to spring; he must have come to the throne some time before that, since his “accession year was the part of his reign preceding his first full calendar year. The date of his accession can be determined some time in the preceding Nov. of 486BC, because the latest known tablet dated in his father-Darius‘ last regnal year is in the 7th month, and was first dated in Xerxes‘ reign in the 8th month (approx. Dec. 1). #38/6

After his accession in November, 486 BC, the first New Year’s Day to arrive was the Egyptian 1st of Thoth, in December (Fig. 2- I);#39/7. The Egyptian 1st year began, but those of his subjects who used the Babylonian-Persian calendar (band 2) would not begin to date by his year I until the next Nisanu I, the next Spring; and those who used the Jewish fall-to-fall; Tishri calendar (band 3) continued to date the accession year until their New Year’s Day came-next Tishri I, in the 7th month-almost a year after his accession and half a year after the Persian year I had begun. (That’s why, in some of these papyri, the Dateline in two calendars can have two regnal year numbers.) So, in his reign, any specific year of Xerxes from year I to year 21–began the earliest     in the Egyptian calendar, then in the Persian calendar, and last in the Jew’s calendar. This demonstrated that the Jewish year 21, reckoned from Tishri I, must be 465BC.#7a.

[And since year 21 s* PDBC (1956), p. 17. SQ For this Egyptian postdating of Xerxes, see note 31.]

As we see in the Book of [Esther 1:9-19, 2:4] Ahasuerus‘ former wife was Vashti. Yet, the Great Feast described in v. 3, the 3rd year of his reign as we learn from Persian inscriptions was held in preparation for the Persian expedition against Greece, after the death of Darius, who relinquished the title-Ahasuerus to his co-regent son Xerxes, ruling 485-465 BC, leading a vast Persian army against Greece c. 482-1 BC.#7b  He fought famed battles of Thermopalyae & Salamis in 480 BC, & married Esther in the 7th year of his reign [Est. 2:16-17], in 478 BC. #8 In a key Archaeological inscription from the Shushan Palace @ Susa-200 miles East of Babylon, capital of Elam & winter residence of Kings of Persia was a site identified by Loftus in 1852, where the record from Artaxerxes II [405-358 BC] says; “My ancestor Darius [521-485 BC] built this palace in former times. In the reign of my grandfather [Artaxerxes 1; 465-425 BC] it was burned. I have restored it.” This palace was the residence of Darius, who authorized the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple; of Xerxes who was Esther’s husband; and Artaxerxes 1, who authorized a restoration of Jerusalem by Nehemiah.” #8a

The location of this inscription was in the famed building in Susa called its “Apadana“, the audience hall of the Palace of Darius. Apadana – the word is only known from Susa – was built together with the palace by Darius I the Great (r522-486BC). This can be deduced from an inscription known as A2Sa, that was written for Artaxerxes II Mnemon (r404-358), who finished a restoration of the complex after a great fire during the reign of his grandfather, Artaxerxes I Makrocheir (r465-424/423): The inscription below reads in part:

  “Artaxerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of all nations,
the king of this world, the son of king Darius [II Nothus], Darius the son
of king Artaxerxes [I Makrocheir], Artaxerxes the son of king Xerxes, Xerxes the son of king Darius, Darius the son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenid, says:
my ancestor Darius I the Great, made this apadana, but during the reign of my grandfather Artaxerxes, it was burnt down; but, by the grace of Ahuramazda, Anahita, and Mithra, I reconstructed this audience hall. May Ahuramazda, Anahita, and Mithra protect me against all evil, and may they never destroy
nor damage what I have built.”#8b

Susa, Apadana, Capital

Apadana, site of the throne among the 36 column bases in the audience hall is a thirty-seventh foundation, in the exact center if one enters from the northern, main entrance. This must have been the place of the throne of the Achaemenid king. #8c The fact that there are no columns left to be erected, makes it hard to  imagine what a splendid building the Apadana was in Antiquity. Thus, only the column‘ bases are left in Susa today, as seen below;A key Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions is the “daiva inscription“. The Old Persian text is known from three stone slabs from Persepolis & the Pasargadae citadel, (Elamite and Babylonian copies exist.) The interesting detail for which this text has become famous turns on a meaning of the word daiva, that clearly means “demon” and looks similar to the word daeva in the Avesta (Zoroastrian holy book). If daiva & daeva agree, it makes it more likely the rebels lived in Iran, where the Zoroastrian religion held sway. But, if these words align, daiva can refer to gods of Babylon or Egypt. As Xerxes adhered to Ahura-mazda-primary God of Zoroastrianism, who was the only other monotheistic God than Jehovah of Israel, not considered an idol or part of an idol pantheon, it seems logical that the Persian kings especially after King Cyrus, who himself was a Messianic figure with a speacial commission to lead people positively to the One true God-even as the Persian–Zoroastrian Magi did to Christ. With  this in mind we can see this sentiment in other parts of this daiva inscription;

“King Xerxes says: when I became king, there was among these countries one that was in rebellion. Ahuramazda bore me aid. By the grace of Ahuramazda,     I smote that country and put it down in its place. And among these countries there was a place where previously demons (daiva) were worshipped. After-wards, by the grace of Ahuramazda I destroyed that sanctuary of demons, &   I proclaimed: ‘The demons shall not be worshipped!‘ Where previously the demons were worshipped, there I worshipped Ahuramazda at a proper time and manner. And the other business that had done ill, I made good. That which I did, all I did by the grace of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda bore me aid until I  completed the work.” #8d 

This speaks highly of how and why The Hand of the Almighty God dealt so graciously not only with this line of Persian kings but also with the class of Parthian/Zoroastrian Magi, instructed by the Prophet Daniel as followers of the path leading to Christ’s Birth in 3BC.

Biblically King Cyrus is recognized as a Messianic figure, [Isa. 45:1] called His anointed to open the gates of Babylon as declared by the Prophet Isaiah [Isa. 44:28], who authorized the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple, while freeing the Jews from exile in their Babylonian Captivity, to return to their Promised Land of Israel.

Widely-held images of Ahasuerus & Vashti are found in the rabbinic midrash, and other sources where Vashti was considered of royal blood. The Midrash is a genre of Jewish Biblical exegesis,[2] including Talmudic texts that use a classical rabbinic mode of homiletical interpretation (derash). This word means; “textual interpretation“, “study”, or “exegesis“,[3] derived from a root verb (דָּרַשׁ‎)- darash, which means “resort to, seek, seek with care, enquire, require.”#8e

Midrash contains a method in Scripture interpretation to elucidate legal points [Midrash Halakah], or to bring out lessons by stories or homiletics [Midrash Aggadah].#8f Midrash is too named for the Rabbinic interpretations, of rabbinic readings to “discern value in texts, words, and letters, as potential revelatory vehicles.” “They review major Scripture narratives that suggest alternate readings to stand beside—not replace—existing grammatical text. #9

Midrash is also used in a rabbinic work that interprets Scripture in this manner,[7][8] containing early interpretations and commentaries on Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons), as well as non-legalistic rabbinic literature (aggadah) and at times Jewish religious laws (halakha), usually forming running commentary on specific passages in the Hebrew Scripture. The midrash conveys that Vashti was the orphaned daughter of Belshazzar; God was her help and kept her alive so she was wed to the emperor of Persia and Media, even though she was a Chaldean (=Babylonian) (Esth. Rabbah 3:5).#10

Belshazzar had been known only from the Book of Daniel (chapt. 5, 7–8) and from Xenophon’s Cyropaedia till 1854, when references to him were found in Babylonian cuneiform inscriptions. Though in the Book of Daniel he was the son of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian inscriptions indicate that he was in fact the eldest son of Nabonidus, who was king of Babylon from 555 to 539, and of Nitocris, who was perhaps a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. As the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon occured to the Achaemenian Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. The possibility exists that Nabonidus was married to one of Nebuchadnezzar II’s daughters. Not only would such a link explain Nabonidus’s rise to the throne (due to being part of the royal family), but it also explains later historical traditions when Belshazzar is described as Nebuchadnezzar’s descendant. In the Biblical Book of Daniel– Belshazzar is not only known as Nebuchadnezzar’s grand-son,[10] but Daniel himself seems to have dated events in the years of Belshazzar’s co-regency, [Dan. 7:1, 8:1]. As Nabonidus went into exile (550), he entrusted Belshazzar with the throne and the major part of his army, when Belshazzar oversaw the government, his own estates, and those of his father.#11

Jer. 27:6-7 “Now I have given all these lands into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, My servant, and I have given him also the wild animals of the field to serve him. 7 All the nations shall serve him and his son and his grandson until the time of his own land comes; then many nations and great kings will make him their servant.”

Nebuchadnezzar’s Family Tree Chart #11a

The Kings of Babylon were also mentioned in the book of Daniel. Do these prophecies of Jeremiah harmonize with Daniel Chapter 5?

Jeremiah’s prophecy that many nations (including Judah) and great kings (including Jehoiachin) would serve Nebuchadnezzar and “his son and his grandson.” So Babylon was predicted to end with Nebuchadnezzar’s grand-son. Indeed it ended 60 years later with Belshazzar, son of the state noble Nabonidus who was a usurper to the throne, nonetheless not in the line of Nebuchadnezzar, who allied the Babylonians with the Medes via another royal wedding: as the Babylonian crown prince Nebuchadnezzar married Amytis, the daughter of Astyages. Via the Chart above we find Nabonidus married Nitrocis, Nebuchadnezzar’s daughter, making him Nebuchadnezzar’s son-in-law and Belshazzar, Nebuchadnezzar’s grandson.

If Darius I was indeed the husband of Esther, then what does history tell us about Darius’ wife/wives? 

Via Herodotus, Otanes was blessed with royal marriages. Darius I married Otanes’ daughter; Phaedymia while Otanes married a sister of Darius, who gave birth to Amestris. As Queen of the Achaemenid empire, daughter of Otanes (Ctesias, fragment 13, par. 24 [in Jacoby, Fragmente] gives Onophas),  one of seven conspirators against Gaumata. She was married to Xerxes I (Herodotus 7.61.2) and was mother of Artaxerxes I, Amytis, and others. She died at an old age, near the end of Artaxerxes’ reign.#12

Amestris was a daughter of Otanes, one of seven nobles reputed to have killed the magus impersonating King Bardiya in 522 BC. After this, Darius I the Great of Persia assumed the throne. The right side of the chart below shows an Achaemenid lineage, while the left side details Bardiya/Smerdis usurpers as pretenders to the lineage of Cyrus I/Cambyses I.

Thus, if Xerxes I who was co-regent with Darius I- starting 496 BC was not Esther’s husband, then who was his wife? History points us to a woman named Amastris;

Amestris (Greek: Άμηστρις, Amēstris, perhaps the same as Άμαστρις, Amāstris, from Old Persian Amāstrī–, “strong woman“)[2] was an Achaemenid queen, wife of king Xerxes I and mother of king Artaxerxes I.[3][4] She was an influential women of the Achaemenid era, very powerful and vindictive.#13 [5]

1. Achaemenid queen, daughter of Otanes (Ctesias, fragment 13, par. 24 [in Jacoby, Fragmente] gives Onophas), who was one of seven conspirators who killed the Persian usurper king Gaumâta (22 September 522 BC). After this, Darius I the Great who reigned from 522-486BC opened his rule. According to Greek historian Herodotus, (5th century), Otanes was honored in diplomatic marriage: the new king married Otanes‘ daughter Phaedymia, as Otanes married a sister of Darius, who gave birth to Amestris.

Family tree of Amestris

Amastris married Xerxes I (Herodotus 7.61.2) and as mother of Artaxerxes I, Amytis, and others, she had a bad reputation of being licentious and notoriously cruel; (Ctesias, fragment 14), she exercised a baneful influence in Artaxerxes’ court; e.g., she is said to have caused the wife of her brother-in-law Masistes to be mutilated (Herodotus 9.109-l2) One of the only consistent facts in Persian succession referenced in history is the mother of a legitimate heir was always Persian. In fact, all royal wives marked in Greek and Persian sources were Persian women. Any consort who wasn’t, is marked as a concubine.#14 This is a popular case for why Esther as Jewess Queen with Persian King fell in history
under a shadow of doubt. But as Mordecai the Grand Vizier & adopted Father of Esther, advised she conceal her genealogy, these facts did not come to light till afterwards. The Hebrew-Greek Septuagint– as the source text for the book of Esther, was produced in a later Persian or early Seleucid period, belonging to a Hellenistic genre. For more on Esther: see Ego, B. (2019) “Prayer & Emotion in the Septuagint of Esther“ Ego, B. (2006) Esther, Brill Online.#15” After the death of Atossa, Amastris, the wife of Xerxes, whom Greek writers such as Herodotus describe as a powerful yet cold-hearted woman, played a leading role in Xerxes’ court. Amastris also accompanied him during his military campaign against Greece.”[15]“Amastris, the first lady of Xerxes’ court, was a most formidable & ruthless women of her time. Though many of the actions attributed to her by Greek historians cannot be fully accepted, the surviving evidence points to her psychological strength and authority.
 Amastris outlived Xerxes, remained active in royal affairs serving as Queen mother during a long reign of her son Artaxerxes I. “During his reign, powers of kingdom influence were in her hands. The young king, Artaxerxes I, was heavily swayed by his mother, Amastris, and his sister, Amestris. The Queen Mother lived a long life, and her reputable standing of lineage and wealth, ranked highly, as her authority and respect remained intact until the end. She died in early 424 BC, aged near ninety, with the passing of Artaxerxes himself following soon after.[12][13] #16 

Midrash is also used of a rabbinic work that interprets Scripture in this manner,[7][8] containing early interpretations and commentaries on Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons). Midrash also asks questions of the text; at times it provides answers, that prods the reader to seek truth.” As a Jewish mode of interpretation; Midrash not only engages the words of the text, behind the text, and beyond the text, but also focuses on each letter, and their part in forming the words of each line. #17 


Mordechai and the Jehoiachin Exile

A good reason for reading the story of the megillah as having occurred before the rebuilding of the Temple comes in Esther 2:5 introducing Mordechai:

אסתר ב:ה אִישׁ יְהוּדִי הָיָה בְּשׁוּשַׁן הַבִּירָה וּשְׁמוֹ מָרְדֳּכַי בֶּן יָאִיר בֶּן שִׁמְעִי בֶּן קִישׁ אִישׁ יְמִינִי. ב:ו אֲשֶׁר הָגְלָה מִירוּשָׁלַיִם עִם הַגֹּלָה אֲשֶׁר הָגְלְתָה עִם יְכָנְיָה מֶלֶךְ יְהוּדָה אֲשֶׁר הֶגְלָה נְבוּכַדְנֶאצַּר מֶלֶךְ בָּבֶל.

Esth. 2:5 In the fortress Shushan lived a Jew by the name of Mordecai, son of Jair son of Shimei son of Kish, a Benjaminite. 2:6 Who was exiled from Jerusalem in the group that was carried into exile along with King Jeconiah of Judah, which had been driven into exile by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.

As a son of Kish, this name of the father of King Saul, another Benjaminite, the Talmud accords Mordecai the status of a descendant of the first King of Israel.
Grammatically speaking, the clause “who had been exiled” can refer to Kish or to Mordecai. If the rabbis hold to the latter, it means that Mordechai lived during the 1st exile, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. According to Daniel 9:2, Jerusalem lay desolate for 70 years before the Temple was rebuilt, that would be 81 years after Mordechai had been exiled. As it is hard to imagine Mordechai- a 100-110+ year old man in the story, so the rabbis would have to agree that the story of the megillah took place before the Temple was rebuilt.#18 This agrees with the record of Ezra 4:1;

“Now when the [a]adversaries of Judah and Benjamin heard the descendants of the captivity were building the temple of the Lord God of Israel… they opposed and discouraged them…

Ezra 4:4-6
3 But Zerubbabel and Jeshua and the rest of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Israel said to them, “You may do nothing with us to build a [b]house for our God; but we alone will build to the Lord God of Israel, as King Cyrus the king of Persia has commanded us.” 4 Then the people of the land tried to discourage the people of Judah. They troubled them in building, 5 and hired counselors against them to frustrate their purpose all the days of Cyrus king of Persia, even until the reign of Darius king of Persia.

Achashverosh [Ahasuerus] reigned between Daryavesh (=Darius I), during whose reign the Temple was rebuilt (Ezra 6:15), & Artachshasta (=Artaxerxes I).[7] This supports the idea that Achashverosh was identified with Xerxes.#19

Mordechai

In an introductory statement about the reign of Xerxes, after mentioning two of Xerxes’ influential advisors, Ctesias writes that “among the eunuchs,[29] Natacas (Nατακας) exercised the greatest influence.”[30] A few lines later, he refers to a eunuch of Xerxes named Matacas (Ματακας). These two names likely reflect the same person.[31]

The “as” at the end of either name is almost certainly a Greek addition. Thus, “Matacas” suggests a Persian name with the consonants MTC, which would be very close to the consonants of the name Mordechai, MRDC.[32] Even the name “Natacas” is not that different. “N” and “M” are related consonants, both being nasal stops; it is not unusual for one to transform into the other.

With either form of the name, the information provided by Ctesias, that he was a high-ranking official in Xerxes court, bears a strong resemblance to the last verse in the Megillah, which records by the end of the story, Mordechai was 2nd mishneh (=second) to the king. So, the Matacas of Ctesias and Mordechai of the Megillah may refer to the same historical person.#19a


According to the book of Esther there was a plot to kill Xerxes which was thwarted in the 11th year of his reign, we read: Bigthan and Teresh, two eunuchs & officials–ministers of the King’s Court — the porters — were outraged seeking to lay hands on King Ahasuerus. But this thing came to be known to Mordecai, and he soon revealed it to Queen Esther. Then Esther told the king in Mordecai’s name.  The case was therefore sought and finally discovered, with both hanged on a  pole (…) Shortly afterwards. In the 1st month, that is the month of Nisan, the 12th year of King Ahasuerus (Est 2:21–3:7). The serious accusation against the Jews is dated in the 12th year of the legal reign of Xerxes (Est 3:7–10), at the start of his effective reign (Ezr. 4:6).
 Cameron#27 notes that the accession of Xerxes and his 1st year are well represented in Babylon, it does not place a revolt in the first 2 years since the Babylonians openly recognized Xerxes in his early steps, but Waerzeggers#28 notes that the tablet BM 96414, dates the accession of Šamaš–erîba mentions the 1st year of Xerxes, in 485 BC. #20
This information from Ctesias & Plutarch overlap, making it possible to locate the two brief reigns of Bel–šimânni and Šamaš–erîba in year 485 BC or early in the effective reign of Xerxes after the death of Darius. Contemporary records in Babylonian archives dating to the reigns of Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba; over a division of a large satrapy of Babylonia, early in Xerxes reign in 2 parts, as seen in the “daiva inscription” of Xerxes, that recorded a suppression of a
religious revolt in the empire. A remark by Roman author Arrian of Nicomedia, using 4th-century BC sources, stated Xerxes subdued a Babylonian revolt on his return from the war against Greece (479 BC). Via Arrian, Xerxes punished the city by closing the Esagila, Temple of Marduk, center of Babylon’s state cult. North of the Esagila was the Etemenanki, the ‘Foundation of heaven on earth‘, better known to us as the ‘Tower of Babel‘ [Gen. 11]. This temple tower (or ziggurat) was 92 meters high and had seven levels. According to the Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus, the Persian king Xerxes had a statue removed from the Esagila when he sacked the city.
If the Babylonian revolts occurred during the first year 1 of Xerxes’ reign, a chronological ranking of contracts29 tells us that they took place when the king had been fully recognized in Borsippa, which would be quite illogical. In fact, for the Babylonians the legitimate king was Šamaš–erîba. For a Babylonian scribe, Xerxes, an Achaemenid, was a usurper in his 1st year of reign, not a legitimate king in his 11th year of reign. To avoid this scene historians have speculated that the Babylonian revolts were at their maximum near 484/ 483 rather than 485 BC, but this assumption is contradicted by 3 elements:


1. If the first Babylonian revolt occurred in 484 BC, this year would have been the 2nd regnal year of Xerxes, however two tablets of Šamaš–erîba are clearly date in year 1 of Xerxes.

2. Greek historians describing the succession Darius/ Xerxes all indicate that some Babylonian revolts occurred just after the death of Darius, not 2 years later. In addition, that chronology makes sense because revolts usually occur just after the death of a king when some pretenders to the throne contest the succession, which was the case for Xerxes.


3. An astronomical fragment (JCS 1, 350 n°2) enables a dating of the Babylonian revolts. Although data are fragmentary they describe a revolt, clearly dated 05/IV/[?] during Xerxes’ reign (line 3 of the tablet) in perfect agreement with Bel–šimânni’s tablet (BM 87357). The astronomical fragment reads 30:

2) [...] ……. […]

3) [...] the month of Tammuz (IV), the 5th day […]
4) [...] to Babylon went […]
5) [...] the troops of Elam […]
6) [... the religion of Mars which to […]
7) [... Mars into Cancer entered …]
8) [... fled and into the river jumped and […]
9) [... to] Borsippa went, destroyed the city [...]
The historical notices appear to be related to a conflict between Babylon and Elam (Media and Persia). Line 4 indicates that the troops, &/or others, went to Babylon. Line 5 mentions the troops of Elam, and line 8 apparently refers to a military defeat (Here someone flees and then jumps into a river, a parallel is to be found in the annals of Assurbasirpal). In line 9 a group of people go to Borsippa. Lines 6–7 date these events to a year when the planet Mars was in
the vicinity of Cancer during the month of Tammuz (IV). Observations of Mars in this context may be more than coincidental since planet Mars is not only the planet of Nergal, the Babylonian War-god, but is also often linked with Elam in astrology. The fragment must refer to an astronomical omen rather than an astronomical diary for two reasons: most data comes from a chronicle rather than an astronomical record (in which historical events are rare); given that the constellation of Cancer covers 20° of the sky31 it needs 20 days for a planet
to cross it, preventing one from making observations dated to a specific days. For practical reasons, Mars was entered visibly in a star sign /constellation when it was crossing its centre. An astronomical simulation32 indicates that Mars was in the center of the constellation of Cancer near the 9th of April –484 (485 BC),

matching Nisan (1st month of Babylonian year), and again33 on March 6th–467 (468 BC). Presumably after the death of Darius, Babylonian priests, given the dissatisfaction with Babylon and this omen early in the reign of Xerxes (year 11), had predicted wars (which happened soon after).

Xerxes began his reign on two occasions, first as co-regent till 486 BC, his accession is dated III/00 (June), and again as true king after Darius 1′ death. dated 10/IX/10 (8 December 486 BC). Darius I 522-496 Darius I/Xerxes 496-486 Pherendates 496-486 Darius I/Xerxes 496-486 Xerxes I co-regency 486-475, 486 Bel-shimanni 14+/V/00 04/VI/00 xx/VI/00 “usurper” 485–485 Shamash-eriba 04/V ! /00 11/VIII/00 xx/VIII/00 “usurper” 485–485 Xerxes I 20/ V/21 14/V/21 –475 486

The fragment must refer to an astronomical omen rather than belonging to an astronomical diary for two reasons: most information comes from a chronicle rather than an astronomical record (where historical events are rare); given that the constellation of Cancer covers 20° of the sky#31 it needs 20 days to be crossed by a planet, which prevents one from making observations dated to specific days. For practical reasons, Mars entering visually into a constellation
when it was crossing its centre. An astronomical simulation#32 indicates that Mars was central in the sign Cancer near April 9th–484 (485 BC), matched in

Nisan (1st month of Babylonian year), & again #33 on 6 March –467 (468 BC). Presumably after Darius’ death, Babylonian priests, in their dissaffection with Babylon and this omen early in the reign of Xerxes (year 11), had predicted wars as (Greco-Persian wars happened soon after).

An astronomical tablet (BM 32234)34 contains 2 lunar eclipses and the death of Xerxes is dated 14/V. Given that the 2nd partial lunar eclipse is dated 14/VIII (November/ December) it is easy to check what year it occurred35. A complete analysis of these 2 eclipses (when they began and ended, how much area of the moon darkened. P = Partial; T = Total; N = Penumbral) enables us to keep only the year 475 BC (=–474), not dated 465 BC that’s usually agreed. #36/21

(4) The use of “year 21” “accession year,” in either Persian or Jewish dating, agrees with the fact that no known Babylonian tablets recognize any other kings between Xerxes and Artaxerxes, though Jewish dating implies a gap before the beginning of Artaxerxes’ accession year in Egypt.

(5) The alignment of the regnal years of the same number in the Egyptian and the two Semitic calendars (attested by the synchronisms of Ptolemy’s Canon, the Saros list, double-dated papyri, and dated tablets) follows this order: Egyptian (December), Persian (spring), Jewish (fall), in the reign of
Xerxes; likewise in Artaxerxes’ reign the order is: Egyptian, followed by Persian, followed (if AP 6 has a Jewish date) by the Jewish.

(6) This alignment makes it clear that the year formula in AP 6 does not fit the Egyptian calendar, but is an exceptional but normal double formula in either the Persian or the Jewish calendars.#22

EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY THROUGH ASTRONOMICALLY DATED SYNCHRONISMS 9 ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY OF THE 27TH DYNASTY (526-405) The Egyptian chronology of the 27th dynasty is the same as Achaemenid chronology, which is itself based on the Babylonian king lists. However, these king lists contain certain chronological inconsistencies, particularly to start and end the reign of Artaxerxes I. A study was therefore carried out on all dated Babylonian contracts, as well as on all the astronomical tablets listed, to re-construct an absolute chronology of the Achaemenid period (Gertoux 2018: 179-206). Consequently, the absolute Achaemenid chronology modifies the Egyptian chronology because whereas the contracts of the Achaemenid kings were dated in the Babylonian lunar calendar written at Elephantine    in southern Egypt, over the period 525-400 BC, were dated in Egyptian civil calendar. In addition, regnal years opened with the 1st Nisan in Babylon but with the 1st Thoth in Egypt. 13 Bardiya (birth name) is called Gaumata by Darius I. 

10 As Bardiya, Xerxes began his reign on two occasions, first as co-regent in 496 BC, his accession is dated III/00 (June), and again as true king after Darius 1 death. dated 10/IX/10 (8 December 486 BC).  Xerxes I / [Xerxes as new king] 485 Xerxes I / Bel-šimânni 9 VI IX 0 Xerxes I / Šamaš-erîba Year 1 of Xerxes/ 24/VI/00 (BM 96414) 10 VII X 11 VIII XI 12 IX XII *** OECT 10 176 dated 5/IX/11 (Kish) 484 1 X I 12 2 XI II *** JCS 28 38 dated 24/XI/11 (unassigned) According to this chronological reconstruction, during his 10th year of reign Xerxes was co-regent of Darius I until 8 December 486 BC, then full king after this date. As the years of reign began on the 1st Thoth in Egypt at that time (early Jan.), the 11th year of Xerxes’ reign began in January 485 BC, while this 11th year began in April 485 BC in Babylon. A careful study of Egyptian documents confirms this change in Xerxes’ status.

Indeed, G. Posener notes the Egyptian title of Xerxes had changed from his Year 10 but without giving the reason. In Posener’s collection of hieroglyphic inscriptions (Posener: 1936, 92, 120-124, 162), Posener classified Persian kings according to a chronology accepted in his time. But several anomalies can be explained only by assuming a 10-year co-regency between Xerxes & Darius. In these hieroglyphs, the Egyptian pharaohs, from Amasis to Artaxerxes, are still called “Lord of the Two Lands”, except Xerxes who is called “Master of Crowns” between year 1 and year 10 of his reign. He got a legal title of “Lord of the Two Lands”- official title of the Pharaohs of Egypt, only from his year 10. If Xerxes became Pharaoh shortly after Darius’ death, he then would have received the usual title “Lord of the Two Lands;“ to designate Egyptian kings, but the title was awarded him only in his year 10. In Addition, for no known reason, the name Darius changed from year 27 up to year 36 of his reign to become inDarius. This hieroglyph in, literally meaning “contribution” in Egyptian 14 , or “booster”, can’t be a phonetic complement, as it deteriorates the pronunciation. FIG. 2 Year 2 Month I Akhet Day 9 Master of crowns, Xerxes Year 6, Master of crowns, Xerxes Year 10, Lord of the two lands, Xerxes (Dec. 486 BC) Year 6, Lord of the two lands, Cambyses (II) Year 36, Lord of the two lands, Darius (I) Year 12, Lord of the two lands, Xerxes 14 This hieroglyph appears in the names some pharaohs like Antef “contribution of his divine father”. It may be an abbreviation of the Egyptian word inpw “royal child”, meaning a pretender to the throne that is a “Crown prince”. #23

EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY THROUGH ASTRONOMICALLY DATED SYNCHRONISMS 11 TABLE 6 King in Babylonia in Egypt Cambyses (II) Kambuzia K-n-b-w-d3 From 5th to 8th year King of Babylon, King of lands Lord of the Two Lands– Darius (I) Dariawush (in)-Ti-rw-y-w-š3 From 1st year to 36th year King of Babylon, King of lands, Lord of the Two Lands– Xerxes- Khisi‘arsa Ḫ-š3-y-rw-š3 From accession to 1st year King of Babylon, King of lands? From 1st year to 10th year King of Persia & Media, King of Babylon and of lands, Master of Crowns from 10th year to 21st year King of lands, Lord of the Two Lands The years indicated in those documents have been understood as years of reign when in fact they are years of domination (months/days usually unspecified).

The Egyptian administrator Atiyawahy, for example, says that he spent “6 years under Cambyses and 36 years under Darius”. The hieroglyph with an eyebrow above the date is used, while the years of reign are typically identified by the hieroglyph. As the Egyptian word inḥ “eyebrow” also means “surround”, those years [of reign] were for the Egyptians years [of surrender]. Diodorus dates the beginning of the Persian domination in Egypt in the third year of the 63rd Olympiad [in 526 BC]

(Historical Library I: 68:6) and the end in the archonship of Euclid [in 403 BC], or in the year 2 of Artaxerxes II, when Amyrtaeus had become the new pharaoh of the 28th dynasty (Historical Library XIV:11:1-12:1, I:44:3). Those data taken from his Greek chronology are accurate. However, Diodorus wrote in summary: The Persians were masters, after King Cambyses subjected the nation by force of arms, for 135 years, contradicting his own chronological calculations (length of 123 years obtained between 526 and 403 BC). In fact, a total period of 123 years corresponds to an amount calculated with a 40-year reign for Artaxerxes I, as  the 135 years corresponds to an actual reign of 51 years. Diodorus probably compiled different data from an Egyptian informer (Historical Library III:11) without trying to harmonize them. The reign of 6 years* in Egyptian reckoning can correspond to 4 years in the Babylonian reckoning (526-522). TABLE 7 Length according to: dates: official reign Diodorus Ptolemy actual reign BC Cambyses II 526 – 6 years 526–520 526-522 (6 years*) 526-522 Darius I 36 years 520-484 522-486 36 years 522-486 Xerxes I 20 years 484-464 486-465 21 years 496-475 Artaxerxes I 40 years 464-424 465-424 51 years 475-424 Darius II 19 years 424-405 424-405 19 years 424-405 Artaxerxes II –403 2 years 405-403 2 years 405-403 Total: 123 years 123 years 526-403 526-403 135 years

According to the Bible, the massive emigration of Jews into Egypt began shortly after the Pharaoh Nekau II set King Jehoiakim (in 609 BC) on the Jerusalem throne (2Ki 23:34, Jer. 26:21-23, 42:14). After Gedaliah’s murder, many Jews immigrated to Egypt (Jer. 43:7, 44:1) in land of Patros (“the Land of the South” in Egyptian) southern province in which Elephantine was a main town.

12 FUNCTIONING OF THE EGYPTIAN LUNAR CALENDAR The calendar of Elephantine (in the far south of Egypt) with its system of double dates, using Egyptian and Babylonian names, was used by Persian officials and Jewish scribes only during a short period from 525 to 400 BC. For example, a Persian official erected a votive stela stating: This temple, (W)id(arnaga) the garrison commander of Syene made in month of Sivan, that is Meḥir, Artaxerxes’ 7th

year, the king (to) Osirnaḥty, the god. Peace (Lemaire: 1991, 199-201). Egyptian documents dated in both lunar and the civil calendars allow absolute dates to be obtained because such date coincidences only occur every 25 years if the lunar day is correctly observed, or every 11 years with a 1-day observation error. The Aramaic documents from Elephantine, dated over the period 525-398 BC, contain 21 well identified double dates, making it possible to anchor the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes on absolute dates.

 

A study showed that the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes had been shifted by 10 years with respect to astronomical dates 17 giving rise to different inter-calations during the reigns of Darius & Xerxes (Gertoux: 2018, 179-206; 2020, 273-279). • Elephantine papyri are letters dated in both the lunar calendar & the Egyptian civil calendar, so they provide absolute dates, assuming the lunar calendar agreed with Babylon’s conventional chronology (Porten: 1996, 152–234), but this is not scientifically adequate because if the average error is one day among most dated records, in seven contracts the double dates deviate by more than one day; in two contracts it differs by two days (C13; K2); in one it is four days (C10); in three its 1 month (K8; C8; C9); and in one it is a year (K6), which is aberrant. (Porten: 1990, 22). If the Babylonian lunar calendar is replaced by Egyptian lunar calendars suggested by Richard A. Parker (in 1950), that starts the lunar month at the 1st invisibility (day after the new moon and before the first lunar crescent), the average error increases from 1 to 2 days on lunar days (Stern: 2000, 159–171). From 525 BC Egypt became a Persian satrapy but most scribes were Egyptians or Jews. Persian officials at Elephantine were familiar with three kinds of lunar calendar, Elamite, Old-Persian and Babylonian, that appear on Darius I’s inscriptions at Behistun. Jewish scribes at Elephantine were familiar with different calendars, but they used a calendar based on the Babylonian calendar after their return to Judea from Babylon. The Babylonian chronology est. by Claudius Ptolemy was confirmed by the BM 34576 tablet (King List dated 99 BC). A study of all tablets (contracts/heiroglyphs)  dated during the period 626–331 BC was published (Parker, Dubberstein: 1956) and showed that all durations in the Achaemenid period agreed with the Babylonian royal lists, providing several short co-regencies were admitted shortly before and also during the enthronement of the new king. 

 

17 Babylonian astronomers classified lunar eclipses according to an 18-year Saros cycle, as they noticed that astronomical phenomena were reproduced identically in the 19th year of the solar cycle and almost identically in the 11th year (within a day). The 19 solar years last 6939.6 days = 19×365.24219 days and correspond exactly to 19 lunar years plus 7 intercalary months,
 lasting 6939.7 days = ([19×12]+7) x 29.530588 days. The 11 solar years last 4017.6 days = 11×365.24219 days and correspond to 11 lunar years plus 4 intercalary months, that last 4016.2 days = ([11×12]+4) x 29.530588 days. With these astronomical cycles the two lunar eclipses of 475 BC (1st total, 2nd partial) were reproduced in 465 BC, but in reverse order (partial then total). For example, the two lunar eclipses of 475 BC were exactly reproduced in 457 BC on 6th July (total) and 31 December (partial). These adjustments made by Babylonian astronomers altered times in the chronology of Artaxerxes and

Xerxes reigns, including the Metonic cycle of the intercalary years. This 19-year cycle; a mathematical cycle synchronizing 19 lunar years with 19 solar years by adding intercalary months, a 2nd Adar mo. (XIIa) or 2nd Ulul month (VIb), in 7 years of a 19-year cycle (3A, 6A, 8A, 11A, 14A, 17U, 19A). But, this 19-year cycle was based on observations, not calculations (Steele: 2007, 121-123) and computed data in diaries (purely computational, not a combo observed & predictive methodology) that appear just prior to 350 BC (Rochberg-Halton: 1991, 107-120). The reading of a few months between is disputed, for example the year 7Adar (XIIa) of Xerxes should perhaps be replaced by the year 8 Ulul (VIb) of Xerxes (Ossendrijver: 2018, 138-143)

 

As the Egyptian calendar had 12 months of 30 days, plus 5 days at the end of the year (365 days), called epagomenon in Greek, it was not lunar (around 354 days). In Elephantine the main system of dating was the Egyptian calendar (civil), but as numerous religious festivals in Egypt were based on lunar phases a lunar calendar was used to fix these dates. The Jews (after 587 BC), then the Persians (after 525 BC), naturally used this calendar for their own religious festivals based on a lunar calendar (ie. Jewish Passover). The language of administration being either Egyptian or Persian, it was necessary to convert the names of the Egyptian lunar months to the common language understood by all: Aramaic. For example, the Jews converted into Aramaic the name of the months of their Hebrew calendar: « It came about that in the 4th year of Darius (…) on the 4th [day] of the 9th month, [that is] in Kislev » (Za 7:1). There was the same situation in Egypt, for example, an Elephantine Papyri (B24) is dated: « [17] Thoth, which is 17 Kislev, year 21 (of Xerxes), accession year of Artaxerxes » (Porten: 1996, 164-165). As Xerxes died on 14/V/21 (24 August) in 475 BC, the 1st Thoth (I Akhet 1) in 475 BC is dated 20 December and 17 Thoth on 5 January 474 BC.

1st Thoth in 475 BC thus links to 20 December in Julian astro-calendar. With
astron software (https://promenade.imcce.fr/fr/pages4/441.html), we find on 20th December –474* (= 475 BC) there was a full moon at 18:20 UT (Universal Time), or at 20:30 Local Time (LT = UT + 2:10) in Elephantine. On Kislev 1 on a lunar calendar in Elephantine thus coincided with the full moon of 20 Dec. in 475 BC. To calculate the 1st Kislev (= 1/IX) of the Babylonian lunar calendar one must first calculate the 1st Tishri (1/VII) coinciding with the 1st lunar crescent after the autumnal equinox on 29 September 01:00 UT in –474* (https://promenade.imcce.fr/fr/pages4/439.html). The 1st astronomical lunar crescent (day after the astronomical new moon) after 29 September is that of 8 October 22:11 UT (= 1/VII). It is possible to calculate the 1st lunar day of the following months: 7 Nov. 09:17 UT (= 1/VIII), 6 December 20:22 UT (= 1/IX). The coincidences between observed lunar days & calendar dates are thus perfect. In 475 BC (= -474*): 1 Kislimu (Babylon calendar) = 6 December (in Babylon) 1 Kislev (Egyptian lunar calendar) = 20 December (Elephantine). The 20 records from Elephantine with a double date enable us to reconstruct a chronology of the reigns of the 27th dynasty. The papyrus B23 is dated: «Year 15 [of Xerxes] 18 Elul, which is 28 Pahons », hence the 1st lunar day is dated 11 Pahons (= 28 – 17), which was a full moon in 481 BC (30 August). The 11 Pahons or I Shemu 11 fits exactly to day 11: Papyrus year Lunar date Egyptian calendar BC 1st lunar day Full moon Xerxes I 15 1 Elul 11 Pahons (I Shemu 11) 29 Aug. 30 Aug. Papyrus B23 15 18 Elul 28 Pahons (= 11 + 17) 15 Sept. 481. A concurrent presence of two different lunar calendars, Babylonian and Egyptian, complicates the dating of the synchronisms between these two chronologies, particularly during the reign of Cambyses II.

 

Nebby Captured Jerusalem on Adar 2, 597BC

although the prosopography of the officials of Ebabbara’s administration #24 shows that Marduk–mukîn–apli and Marduk–bêl–šunu were scribes (ṭupšarru) from year 28 of Darius to year 2 of Xerxes, however, Bêl–ittanu was not a scribe, but only chief of Temple administration (šangû). He was used as a scribe only for the accession of Xerxes, afterwards he made the receipt for

offering of Xerxes in his letter dated [–]/III/01 of Xerxes (VS 6, 179). He was still šangû in a contract dated 21/III/01 of Xerxes (BM 65378) and one dated 17/III/29 of Darius (BM 64022). Consequently it’s more logical to have synchronism: Year 26 of Darius = Year 0 of Xerxes (see pages 12–13 hereafter). Also, the Babylonian revolt early in the reign of Xerxes could not occur to open his co-regency. But these revolts were early in Xerxes reign (year 11), in the 1st year after Darius’ death. Indeed, from the Battle of Marathon (in 490 BC), Herodotus describes a climate of insurrection in the Persian Empire (The Histories VII:1–4). Ctesias said after the death of Darius: Xerxes decided to make war upon Greece (…) Hence he went to Ecbatana, where he got word of a Babylonian revolt and the murder of Satrap Zopyrus (Persica F13§§25–26). Arrian also puts the Babylonian revolt at the time of his campaign against the Greeks (Anabasis of Alexander III:16:4; VII:17:2), which began in Spring of 485 BC via to Herodotus (Histories VII:20).

 

 

Marduk–mukîn–apli and Marduk–bêl–šunu were scribes (ṭupšarru) from year
28 of Darius to year 2 of Xerxes, however, Bêl–ittanu was not a scribe, but only the chief of the temple administration (šangû). He was used as a scribe only for the accession of Xerxes, afterwards he made the receipt for the offering of Xerxes in his letter dated [–]/III/01 of Xerxes (VS 6, 179). He was still šangû in a contract dated 21/III/01 of Xerxes (BM 65378) and one dated 17/III/29 of Darius (BM 64022). Consequently it would be more logical to have a synchronism: Year 26 of Darius = Year 0 of Xerxes (see pages 12–13 hereafter). Next, a Babylonian revolt early in the reign of Xerxes could not have occurred to start his co–regency. Babylonian revolts that took place early in the reign of Xerxes (year 11), after the death of Darius, can’t have occurred when he was co–regent (year 1). Indeed, from the Battle of Marathon (in 490 BC), Herodotus describes a climate of insurrection in the Persian Empire (The Histories VII:1–4). Ctesias said after the death of Darius: Xerxes decided to make war on Greece (…) So he left for a trip to Ecbatana, when he heard of the revolt of the Babylonians and murder of Zopyrus their satrap (Persica F13§§25–26). Arrian situated also a Babylonian revolt at the time of his campaign against the Greeks (Anabasis of Alexander III: 16:4; VII:17:2), which began in the spring of 485 BC according to Herodotus (The Histories VII:20).
These 2 brief rebellions to start of Xerxes’ reign confirm his co–regency
 during the accession in his 1st year of reign, Xerxes was welcomed by the Babylonians and the two Babylonian revolts, just after Darius’ death, imply that Xerxes’ accession could not have occured at the time. Plutarch, confirms the account of Ctesias, saying that after the death of Darius the kingdom of Xerxes was challenged in a climate of revolt (very different from the period  of accession 10 years earlier): When Xerxes was declared king, Arimenes immediately did him homage, crowning him; as Xerxes gave him the next
place to himself. Being offended with the Babylonians, who rebelled, and having overcome them, he forbade them weapons (Sayings of kings and commanders 173c). If Arimenes disputed  the kingdom of Xerxes that means he (Xerxes) was already king. In addition, a Babylonian revolt early in his reign, visibly worried Babylon’s scribes, as we read in a trilingual inscription at Persepolis: King Xerxes says: When I became king, among the nations that are written above, it is one that rebelled, as Ahuramazda gave me his support and thanks to Ahuramazda I beat these people and I put it back in its place #26. Xerxes does not name Babylon as most likely this old people constituted a prestigious historical foundation of Achaemenid power, so it was embarrassing to admit such an insurrection. The translation of the Babylonian inscription is also indicative of this awkwardness as it replaces the offending people by “these countries have rebelled,” combining the revolt that occured at the time of Darius with the rebels, who were the two Babylonians: Nebuchadnezzar III and Nebuchadnezzar IV. The information from Ctesias and Plutarch overlap, making it possible to locate two brief reigns of Bel–šimânni and Šamaš–erîba in the year 485 BC or early in an effective reign of Xerxes after Darius’ death.

 

According to the book of Esther, a plot to kill Xerxes that was thwarted in the 11th year of his reign, we read: Bigthan and Teresh, two officials of the king’s court the porters were outraged and sought to lay hands on King Ahasuerus. But the thing came to be known to Mordecai, that he soon revealed to Queen Esther.
Then Esther told the king in the name of Mordecai. The case was thus sought and finally discovered, and both were hanged on a pole (…) Shortly afterwards (…) In the 1st month, that is the month of Nisan, of the 12th year of King Ahasuerus (Est 2:21–3:7). The serious accusation against the Jews is dated in the 12th year of Xerxes’ legal reign (Est 3:7–10), to open his reign [Ezr. 4:6].

Cameron #27 notes that the accession of Xerxes and his 1st year are well represented in Babylon, it does not put the revolt during the first 2 years since the Babylonians had clearly recognized Xerxes in his early steps, but Waerzeggers#28 notes that the tablet BM 96414, dating the accession of Šamaš–erîba mentions the 1st year of Xerxes.

 

Footnotes

1.https://www.academia.edu/44915277/Intercalations_during_the_co_regency_of_Xerxes_with_Darius_I_in_NABU_2020_4_pp_273_279?email_work_card=reading-history]
2. IBID
3. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312069819_Dating_the_reigns_of_Xerxes_and_Artaxerxes]. Gerard Gertoux. 
4. IBID
5. IBID
6. IBID
7. IBID
7a. Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I, in NABU 2020-4, pp. 273-279 By Gerard GERTOUX
7b. Halley’s Bible Handbook, p. 218, Henry H. Halley
8. IBID, p. 218
8a. IBID ppg. 218-219
8b. http://www.achemenet.com/en/results/?q=Susa
8c. IBID
8d. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/xph/
8e. https://www.thetorah.com/article/if-achashverosh-is-xerxes-is-esther-his-wife-amestris?
8f. Encyclopedia Judaica Glossary definition of Midrash.
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/aggadah
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Daniel
11a. https://www.onepagebiblesummary.com/pad/pad_01.php
12. Herodotus 7.61.2
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amestris
14. (Herodotus-Histories 7.61.2, 9.109-l2)
15. Prayer & Emotion in the Septuagint of Esther“ Ego, B. (2006) Esther, Brill Online.
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amestris
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash#cite_note-9
18. https://www.thetorah.com/article/ahasuerus-and-vashti-the-story-megillat-esther-does-not-tell-you
19. https://www.thetorah.com/article/if-achashverosh-is-xerxes-is-esther-his-wife-amestris
19a. IBID
20.
21.
22. https://about.jstor.org/terms XERXES AND THE BOOK OF ESTHER-LITTMAN
23.
24.
25.

 

–

 

The Lunar Eclipse Pair of 523-522 BC Marking the Ascension of Cambyses.

The Lunar Eclipse Pair of 523-522 BC Marking Cambyses’ Ascension.

In our recent OT History Class taught by Rev. Jon Nessle & Ren Manetti, Ren produced a valuable Chronology in his class notes. He stated; “words on the Chronology in bold print & italics show pieces of missing Biblical Chronology as outlined by the 70-year spans and supplied from Ptolemy’s Canon, which shows Ahasuerus-Cambyses throne ascension on July 16, 530 BC. In Ezra 4, we
see the basis of the Persian’s agreement with conquered peoples like the Jews, was more benevolent than powers like the Assyrians, Greeks or Romans; if they promised not to rebel, they were allowed to go back to their homeland.

Ezra 4:3-8 

But Zerubbabel and Jeshua and the rest of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Israel said to them, “You may do nothing with us to build a [b] house for our God; but we alone will build to the Lord God of Israel, as King Cyrus the king of Persia has commanded us.” 4 Then the people of the land tried to discourage the people of Judah. They troubled them in building, 5 and hired counselors against them to frustrate their purpose all the days of Cyrus king of Persia, even until the reign of Darius king of Persia. 6 In the reign of Ahasuerus, in the beginning of his reign, they wrote an accusation against the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem. 7 In the days of Artaxerxes also, [c]Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabel, and the rest of their companions wrote to Artaxerxes king of Persia; and the letter was written in Aramaic script, and translated into the Aramaic language. 8 [d]Rehum the commander and Shimshai the scribe wrote a letter against Jerusalem to King Artaxerxes in this fashion:

In Rev. Nessle’s Study on “Post-exilic Bible Chronology & Identifying Esther’s Husband,” He points out; “Here we see evidence of the use of both Apellative Names for the Persian Kings, and the names modern historians use. Verse 5 used the names we use, Cyrus and Darius, but verse 6 refers to an “Ahauserus” in the “beginning of his reign.” This would have to be Cambyses as we call him.”
Then the next verse [7] it refers to an Artaxerxes, but this cannot be the king 
we refer to by that name in modern times. That monarch we name Artaxerxes’ reign is too late. So the “Artaxerxes” addressed here must be a throne name for Darius 1.” #1

This appears confirmed in the “decrees“ issued by King Darius 1 in Ezra 6:1, 8, 11-12 until the Temple at Jerusalem was rebuilt in vs. 14-16, in the 6th year of Darius the King, in late winter of 515 BC, and King Artaxerxes in Ezr. 7:21-23, that the commandments of the true God of Heaven were diligently done! This also refers to “decrees” made not only by King Darius, and King Cyrus in Ez. 6:2- called a “roll“ [4040] in The Cyrus Cylinder; Hebrew word; [Megillah], even as the 5 Megilloth as the 5 Books of the Hebrew OT, were preserved and read at Feasts to the God of Israel. #1a

Ren Manetti also shows the 7th year of Cambyses’ reign in 523 BC, confirmed by Eclipses. This month’s blog follows-up on last month’s study of the Greco-Persian Wars, with elements of related chronology.#2 Gertoux’s adapted article below details an astronomical analysis of the British Museum’s Cuneiform Clay Tablet #33066, regarding the 7th year of Cambyses’ reign. This (year 7 Anchor date in 523 BC for Cambyses) owes to tablet BM 33066125: 19 Year 7 month IV, night 14, 1 2/3 beru (= 50° = 50×4 minutes) after sunset, 20 the Moon in Partial Eclipse, with a little left over, north [wind] went. The Partial Eclipse is dated July 16/17, 523 BC [mag. = 0.54] paired with a Jan. 9/10, 522 BC, Total Eclipse. Ptolemy must have known the original tablet as he gave a correct magnitude of 0.50 for the Partial Eclipse. #2a

*Original Footnotes from this adapted study by Gerard Gertoux are fully supplied in their entirety at the end of this article.

In his initial review the author Gertoux, first scanned Espenak’s Lunar Phases Tables (formerly NASA’s) for possible lunar eclipses during the years 540-500 BC to fit lines 19-22 on the reverse side of BM 33066 tablet. After that, he traced Jupiter’s path through the same time period. Initially, he saw only 2 possible eclipse pairs. As it turned out, Jupiter’s path through Virgo falls in the same two time periods as said eclipse pairs: 1) 524-521 BC and, 2) 512-509 BC. Upon closer examination, it soon became clear that, the 512-509 BC scenario, Jupiter events as dated on BM 33066 were incompatible with available lunar eclipses, thus leaving the 524-521 BC scenario as the only viable option.

In particular, this preliminary study made it quite clear that BM 33066… (cf. the bold italicized text within the available footnotes🙂

1. “Based upon the face and format of this astronomical record, it is clear… that the originator of the record was using the Babylonian calendar… beginning each year… month number one.”

2. The beginning of each month is based upon the observable New Moon only.

3. The Jupiter events: as there is no need to debate the existence of a Creator/ God, the greatest scientific evidence and proof for His existence in the truth of the Bible, is the Astronomy of the Star of Bethlehem. One need only wind back the Planetarium and Celestial Computer Programs to see how God spun the planets and laid out the stars in the Universe to declare the Birth of His only Begotten Son. Jupiter Signs like the 3-2BC triple union of Jupiter-Regulus and Jupiter-Venus unions marking the Birth of Christ are prime examples of this Biblical Astronomy, [Try-God.com website]. We have pointed out where these key planetary unions are mirrored in this case on same days or within a day of actual dates aligned with those marking key aspects of Christ’s arrival, to depict how the Creator has sealed these historical dates for those with eyes to see and ears to hear their significance. In this case, it marks key historical Kings leading to the rise of key world Kingdom’s ruling the nations and decrees of King Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream Statue, [Daniel 2, 3:28-30].#3

The Celestial signs marking Christ’s Birth are seen in planet signs of Jupiter, Venus, Mars, Mercury and Saturn as they are documented in numerous blogs @ [Blog.try-god.org] and studies that will keep you busy for a while. References in this month’s blog regarding 523-522 BC as we will see, are directly linked to the planetray signs of the 5 naked-eye visible planets of our Solar System as they pass through the constellations and their God-named stars to tell their story; [Ps. 147:4, Ps. 19, Isa. 45:12, Gen. 1:14-19] of Creation and the birth of Christ.

Gertoux continues; The term ‘Virgo’ is a reference to Gamma Virgo, Porrima (i.e. not a reference to either the constellation Virgo, nor to Alpha Virgo, Spica.)
“The 22nd day of Moon 5 began at sunset August 22, 523 BC, which is the very day when Jupiter passed Gamma Virgo! “The 22nd day of Moon 6 began at sunset September 21+, 523 BC, which is when Jupiter and Porrima became visible together on the morning horizon.

“Notice: These two observations, taken together, makes lines 1-2 [reverse] a statement on the visibility – and evidence of an actual firsthand observation-  of the setting star Porrima over the western horizon. Cf. Jupiter’s visibility over the eastern horizon!”

4. The Lunar Eclipses of lines 19-22 reverse on BM 33066 tablet are identified as follows: “Within the 7th year beginning in the Spring of 523 BC… we… find two lunar eclipses, both of them visible from the Baghdad horizon: A partial (53.15%) eclipse on July 17, 523 BC and a total eclipse on January 10, 522 BC” (cf. ftnote #1.) This mirrors the eclipse date of Herod’s Death…521 years later; Jan. 10th, 1BC, a key in the correct timing of Christ’s Birth in 3 BC. This high-lights a key feature of these planetary signs-as they align with a date matrix of celestial signs marking the birth of Christ with the planets-a starry concerto linked to key fixed stars, set in their constellations by The Almighty Creator, a unified temporal system of truth in His divine revelation for the wonder of all. His written Word in Creation as the Celestial Gospel.

5. “The New Moon of Abib [month number 1 of] year 7 began at sunset on April (5 or) 6, 523 BC… illum.: 0.81%.”

6. “After reviewing the available Jupiter events and available lunar eclipses, we may narrow our considerations to the following Venus events…

“Day 10 of Moon 3 of year 7 began at sunset June 12, 523 BC. Seems we have a problem here: Venus is in front of Cancer, not [immediately in front of] Leo! However, seeing that the first star visible with Venus in the evening sky was Regulus, alpha Leo, this… makes much sense! Especially in light of a mirrored June 12th date in 3BC, marking a Venus–Saturn union in Taurus, one of two consecutive Saturn unions in Taurus, opening to the 3-1 BC Celestial signs marking the Birth of Christ. 

“Day 27 of Moon 3 of year 7 began at sunset June 29, 523 BC. Seems that here too we may have a problem?! Venus is in the area of Gemini, NOT in Cancer. However, the Sun is in Cancer. Perhaps this is an error in translation?… the correct answer is found in recognizing that the Sun too is a star and that the Sun was, at that time, in Cancer! Indeed, as represented by my astronomy software, SNB, Venus was visible even before sunset!…

“Indeed, to me, both of these Venus notations seems powerful evidence of the astronomer’s actual first hand observation of these events.

The conventional 522 BC scenario – which does not(?) fit this astronomical record:

Based upon the face and format of this astronomical record, it is clear 1) that the originator of the record was using the Babylonian calendar, and beginning each year with Abib, month number one, and that 2) the two lunar eclipses of lines 19-22 occurred in the same 7th year as did events pertaining to Jupiter per lines 1-3.

Apparently the conventional dating of this record is based upon little more than an assumption that the lunar eclipses of year 7 & of lines 19-22 are identifiable with the July 5 and December 30, 522 BC lunar eclipses.

Unfortunately for said conventional dating of this record, the closest Jupiter events reminiscent of the events recorded per lines 1-3 in this record occurred one year earlier, that is, between September 20, 523 BC & May 5, 522 BC while being dated within the 7th and 8th years. For these events to fit this record, the events pertaining to Jupiter should have taken place one year later, or else they should be recorded as having occurred in the 6th and 7th year. Alternately, there should be found two lunar eclipses within the 7th year beginning in the Spring of 523 BC. And, Yes, we do indeed find two lunar eclipses within that year, both visible from the Baghdad horizon: A partial (53.15%) eclipse July 17, 523 BC and a total eclipse on January 10, 522 BC.  [July 17th, 2015 Jupiter-Regulus in Leo]

Accordingly, per the eclipse record of lines 19-22, Moon 4 of year 7 must include July 17, 523 BC, and Moon 10 of year 7 must include January 10, 522 BC. Using Espenak’s (formerly NASA’s) lunar phase tables, I find the New Moon of Abib year 7 began @ sunset on April (5 or) 6, 523 BC [Starry Nite Backyard set on Baghdad horizon:] Sunset: 18:19:59; moonset: 19:06:23; lag: 46 min 24 sec; illum.: 0.81%.

Also, per the Jupiter record of lines 1-3, the 22nd day of Moon 5 must precede Jupiter’s passing of Spica, alpha Virgo, on October 14, 523BC, as the 22nd day   of Moon 6 must fall subsequent to said date. Accordingly, (cf. Espenak’s tables) Moon 5 year 7 began with the New Moon August 30+, 523 BC, and Moon 6 year seven began with the New Moon September 29+, 523 BC. Unfortunately, such a placement does not harmonize with the above said lunar eclipses! It follows that either this placement of BM 33066 about 523 BC is wrong, or our choice of Spica, alpha Virgo, may be incorrect. Alternatively, a most likely contender is Gamma Virgo, Porrima, that Jupiter passed August 22, 523 BC. And per the Jupiter record of lines 1-3, the 22nd day of Moon 5 must precede Jupiter’s by- pass of Porrima, Gamma Virgo, on August 22, 523 BC, while the 22nd day of Moon 6 must fall subsequent to said date. Accordingly, (cf. Espenak’s tables) Moon 5 year 7 began with the New Moon August 1+, 523 BC [August 1 sunset: 19:04:39; moonset: 19:56:06; lag: 51 min 27 sec; illum.: 3.30%,] & Moon 6 year 7 began with the New Moon August 31+, 523 BC, reflects the [Aug. 31st, Jupiter–Venus 3BC union in Leo leading to the birth of Christ.] [August 30 sunset: 18:38:13; moonset: 18:56:39; lag: 18 min 26 sec; illum.: 1.66%.]

Thus:

The 22nd day of Moon 5 began at sunset August 22, 523 BC, which is the very day when Jupiter passed Gamma Virgo, as Saturn by-passed Spica, alpha Virgo at the same time. This mirrors a Jupiter–Venus union also in Virgo on
August 21st, 1 BC.

The 22nd day of Moon 6 began at sunset September 21+, 523 BC, was when Jupiter and Porrima became visible together on the morning horizon. This 9/21/523 BC date mirrors the same date in 2015 that opens Hebrew Jubilee year on Atonement day, while marking a Regulus–Venus alignment/union and Rev. 12 sign on the Christ angle of the Great Pyramid, in 2017!

Notice: These two observations, taken together, makes lines 1-2 a clear statement on the visibility – and an actual firsthand observation – of the setting star Porrima over the western horizon. Cf. Jupiter’s visibility over the eastern horizon, as Jupiter and Mars frame Porrima on the ecliptic!

Alternatively, looking upon subsequent series of Jupiter events (which events recur every 12 years) we find that on September 2, 512 BC- Jupiter entered the constellation of Virgo, and on December 13, 510 BC, Jupiter exited Libra while entering Scorpio. More specifically lines 1-3 of this astronomical clay tablet may be understood in terms of depicting the Jupiter events between Sept. 511 BC and Oct. 510 BC. Accordingly, the 7th and 8th years must be placed from the Spring of 511 BC until the Spring of 509 BC, and, for this temporal placement to fit, there must be two lunar eclipses between the Springs of 511 BC and 510 BC, within the 7th year of this record. But the closest pair of lunar eclipses, visible from Babylon, that possibly fit this record occurred on June 14 and December 9, 512 BC. Considering also the lunar eclipses that were not visible from the Baghdad horizon, we find two lunar eclipses also within the 7th year, starting in Spring of 511 BC: A total lunar eclipse on June 4, 511 BC, and a partial (58.54%) lunar eclipse on Nov 29, 511 BC.

Per Starry Night Backyard Constellation Boundaries, Jupiter left Leo for Virgo on Sept 18, 524 BC. Jupiter then became stationary while reversing across the breast of Virgo December 18, 524 BC, and then again April 23, 523 BC reverting to forward motion. Next stationary position occurred –after its last and only passage of Spica, alpha Virgo, on October 14, 523 BC– across the lower left tibia of Virgo on January 20, 522 BC, and following that on May 25, 522 BC. This retro-motion mimics Jupiter’s movements at Christ’s birth, with Jupiter-Regulus triple union. On Sept. 22, 522 BC Jupiter exited a Starry Night Backyard boundary of Virgo for Libra, passed Libra’s alpha star, Zubenelgenubi, [purchase/ deficient price Christ pd] on October 7, 522 BC, mirrors [October 8, 2015 Venus–Regulus in Leo]. On Jan. 5th, 521 BC it exited Libra for Scorpio, by–passing the Sun on Oct. 10, 522 BC, prior to visibility in evening sky, after which it rose higher in morning sky as it trailed ever further behind Libra.

Specifically on lines 1 and 2: ‘Virgo,’ as used in line 1 and 2, could represent either the constellation, or else the lead star, alpha Virgo, Spica. Given that only one month time is provided between lines 1 and 2, I am forced to conclude that Virgo, as used in lines 1 and 2, must apply to Spica, alpha Virgo and not to the constellation as a whole. It follows that the 22nd day of the 5th Moon of line 1 must be placed before Jupiter’s passing Spica, and that the 22nd day of the 6th Moon of line 2 must be placed after Jupiter’s passing Spica.

The conventional 524-522 BC scenario: Given, per Starry Night Backyard soft-ware, that Jupiter passed Spica only once within 524-521 BC, on October 14, 523 BC, I have no choice but to identify Moon 1 as opening May 5, 523 BC, Moon 5 as starting August 30+ [Aug 30, 523 BC sunset: 18:38:13; moonset: 18: 56:32; lag: 28 min 19 sec; illum.: 1.66%;] Moon 6 as opening on Sept. 29+ [Sept 29, 523 BC sunset: 17:59:51; moonset: 18:25:44; lag: 25 min 53 sec; illum.: 2.96%;] and Moon 10 opening on January 26+, 522 BC [Jan 26, 522 BC sunset: 17:27:55; moon- set: 18:52:35; lag: 84 min 40 sec; illum.: 2.25%.

Thus:

Abib 1 was reckoned as beginning on May 5+, 523 BC; ie. per the conventional dating of this record!

The 22nd day of the 5th Moon began on September 20+, 523 BC;

The 22nd day of the 6th Moon began on October 20+, 523 BC;

The 27th day of the 10th Moon began on February 21+, 522 BC. Notice: This is a no fit option, that is since 1) the real event took place on January 20± located 1° 35’ distant, and 2) this real event took place within the boundaries of the Virgo constellation, outside the constellation of Libra!

The closest & only alternative – that does(?) fit this astronomical record: The next time following the above 524-522 BC Virgo and Libra passage of Jupiter, began when, on September 2, 512 BC, Jupiter again exited Leo for Virgo, after which it again became stationary near Virgo’s left elbow; Dec. 24, 512 BC, and again reversing its path on April 25, 211 BC. Following next, Jupiter by-passed Spica, alpha Virgo, September 28, 511 BC, mirroring the last Blood Moon of the  9/28/2015 Blood Moon Tetrad, after which Jupiter reversed its path January 26, 510 BC (shortly after passing Libra’s limits, Dec. 23rd, 511 BC) before halting & reversing on May 29, 510 BC, to reenter Libra, August 16th, 510 BC. After by-passing alpha Libra [Zubenalgenubi] September 22, 510 BC, exiting the sign Libra for Scorpio on December 13, 510 BC.

The alternative 512-510 BC scenario: Given, per my Starry Night Backyard soft–ware, that Jupiter passed Spica only once within 512-510 BC, on September 28, 511 BC, [9/28/2015 Super Blood Moon @ Feast of Trunpets] I have no choice but to identify Moon 1 opening April 21, 511 BC, & Moon 5 started August 18+ [Aug 18, 511 BC-sunset: 18:50:57; moonset: 19:39: 02; lag: 48 min 05 sec; illum.: 1.04%;] Moon 6 opening Sept. 17+Sun clothes Virgo/ Moon @ feet/2015 Mercury-Spica, [Sept 17, 511 BC] @ sunset: 18:15:36; moonset: 19:17:25; lag: 61 min 49 sec; illum: 2.88%;] Moon 10 opened January 13+, 510 BC [Jan 13, 510 BC sunset: 17:16:38; moonset: 18:41:57; lag: 86 min 19 sec; illum.: 3.21%.]

Thus:

Abib 1 reckoned as beginning on April 21+, 511 BC; ie. per the one perfect fit dating of this record!

The 22nd day of the 5th Moon began on September 8+, 511 BC;

The 22nd day of the 6th Moon began on October 8+, 511 BC; mirrors Oct. 8/2015 Venus–Regulus in Leo].

The 27th day of the 10th Moon began on February 8+, 511 BC. Notice: Jupiter moved no more than 0° 20’ between Jan 26 and Feb 8. This is a good fit!

Alternatively: Jupiter passed Porrima on August 7, 511 BC.

Thus:

Abib 1 was reckoned starting on February 22+, 511 BC; This is not a likely Aviv date!

The 22nd day of the 5th Moon began on July 11+, 511 BC;

The 22nd day of the 6th Moon began on August 10+, 511 BC;

The 27th day of the 10th Moon began on December 11+, 511 BC. Notice: Jupiter moved almost 3° between Dec 11 and Jan 25. This is not a good fit!

It follows that for this Jupiter scenario to fit, Spica must have been the Virgo reference star, not Porrima!

Next we will review elements of the Chronologies of Darius 1 and Xerxes 1 followed by Artaxerxes. Lets start with the case for Ahasuerus being Darius: [see seforim blog]

A. Another aspect of this topic is consideration of the Chronology of Persian Kings. A reason for uncertainty in a timeline between Darius and Xerxes is they share similar personality traits. Though there are character traits that can fit Xerxes, they too can fit equally well for Darius. For example, Darius is well-known for his greed. Herodotus called Darius a “huckster“ for Darius sought to make a gain in everything. This fits with Haman offering to pay the King 10,000 talents of silver, & also fits Esther appealing to the loss of kingdom revenue with the Israelites in the kingdom being eliminated.

B. Esther 1:1 says this king reigned over Ethiopia. However, it was not until Cambyses; 530-523 BC that Ethiopia and Egypt were conquered. In 525 BC, Cambyses invaded Egypt. In the spring of that year, the Persian and Egyptian forces clashed at Pelusium, where the Persians emerged victorious. This king also chose the city of Susa/Shushan to build his palace according to Pliny,  ruling out anyone before Darius.

C. The age of Mordecai rules out any later than Darius, to which Rev. Nessle  pointed out and agrees, as seen in the very strong Biblical case he has put together. The age of Mordecai and Esther rules out anyone after Darius. In recognizing this problem have attempted a twisted translation such as the NKJV – that says it was Kish, [not Mordecai] taken captive under Jeconiah. Quotes; Jones says, “Only by a tortured, forced grammatical construction can this sentence ever apply to Mordecai’s Great Grandfather Kish.” If Mordecai was taken into exile, it makes him 78 in the first chapter of Esther, and 87 at the end, rather than 124 years old when promoted to the position of prime minister/Grand Vizier.

This chronology solves major problems in Ezra and Nehemiah where both are either made to be incredibly old or where (as most say) there are two different Ezras and two different Nehemiahs, [but no other Mordecai’s in the Bible.]

D1. Esther 1:14 mentions “the seven princes of Persia and Media.” Darius began the custom of having seven counselors.

D2. Esther 1:14. Notice the order of “Persia and Media” (cf. 1:3,18,19). Before Cyrus, the Medes were dominant and Scripture refers to them as “the Medes and the Persians.” Not until Cyrus’ first year [539-538 BC] did the Persians gain ascendancy over the Medes.

E. Under Darius the Mede there were 120 satrapies (Dan. 6:1), yet under this king there are 127 (Est 1:1). Between the two kings the satrapies increased, but it was not until the 12th year of Darius that all 127 were in place. Under Xerxes the number of provinces controlled by Persia began to decrease.

F. Esther tells us under Xerxes the kingdom actually lost the isles by his 12th year. A good argument for Xerxes comes from Georg Friedrich; Grotefend’s decoding of the Persian characters found in Persepolis ruins. The name of the son of Darius Hystaspis was deciphered as Khshayarsha, in ancient Persian.

G. Grotefend’s translation to Greek = Xerxes. When khshayarsha is transposed into Hebrew, it becomes near letter for letter Akhashverosh, that’s rendered Ahasuerus in English. A problem with this is “Ahasuerus” consists of 2 words “aha“ that means “mighty“ and “Suerus“ meaning “king;”- Mighty king. So the translation into Xerxes leaves out the “aha,“ or the mighty. Jones says that it should have literally been translated “Artaxerxes.” This may be a reference to Darius’s grand-son, Artaxerxes and not Xerxes.

H. Ahasuerus may seem a probable match to Xerxes because:

– The name Ahasuerus is close to some versions of the name Xerxes even though it is not so close to the Xerxes version, as seen below.

Xerxes (Greek) = Xsayaarsan/Khshayarsha/Xsayarsa/Khashayar/Xasayar/Axores (Persian) = Khsherish/Khshiarsh/Khshaiarsha/Xasayarusa/Hasayarusa (Egyptian) = Hisi’arsa/Ahsiyarsu/Ahsiiaarsu (Akkadian/Babylonian) = Aksiwarsu/ Aksiiwaarsu = Hsy’rs (Aramaic) = Ahaseros/Ahaseweros/Ahasveros (Biblical) = Ahasuerus/Assuerus (Latin Biblical) = Ahasweros/Achashverosh (Tiberian Biblical) = Asoueros (Greek Biblical).

I. Although the Septuagint, Vulgate, Midrash & Josephus with an Ethiopic text identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes, these are later traditions, and the name Artaxerxes is similar to Xerxes in Greek at least. (Artaxerxes is “considered a common name/title of kings in Persia.”) Seforim Eclipse Blog

Identifying Khshayarsha/Xerxes with Achashverosh thus makes much sense on linguistic grounds. Critically, it is consistent with Ezra 4:6 which had implied that Achashverosh was king between Daryavesh (=Darius I) & Artachshasta (=Artaxerxes I).[5]
    We have an inscription from Khshayarsha in Persian listing the countries over which he ruled. Among the countries listed are “Hidush” and “Kushiya,” most likely the Hodu and Kush of the Megillah.[6]
    Now that we have identified Achashverosh in secular sources, we can use these sources to provide some biographical information. Xerxes reigned from 486-465 BC, in one timeline when the Temple was already rebuilt, in the reign of his father Darius I in 515 BC. According to Herodotus, Xerxes was the son of Darius by Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. Xerxes was the first son born to Darius after Darius became king. These factors distinguished him from his older half-brother Artabazanes, meriting Xerxes being chosen as successor to Darius. At his accession in 486 BC, Xerxes could not have been more than 35 years old (since he was born after the accession of Darius in 522 BC).
The party in which Vashti rebelled occurred in the 3rd year of Achashverosh‘  reign (1:3), and Esther was not chosen until the 7th year (2:16). Why did it take Achashverosh so long to choose a replacement? It has been suggested Xerxes was distracted by his foreign policy. In the earlier years of his reign, Xerxes ordered a full-scale invasion of Greece. Xerxes led the invasion himself, that removed him from Persia commencing in the spring/summer of his 5th year and continuing through part of his 7th year. [7] This invasion ended in defeat.
From the secular sources and a solar eclipse that took place in the battles, it can be calculated that Xerxes did not return to Susa until the fall of 479 BC.
As was pointed out in last month’s blog, the only Solar Eclipses fitting this description of eclipses by Xerxes’ in 480BC are the 4/09/480BC Total Solar &

10/2/480BC Annular Solar Eclipses. In 479BC only the 3/29/479BC Total Solar Eclipse & 9/21/479BC Annular Solar Eclipses fit the bill of “day now eclipsing into night.”  

[8] Tevet of Achashverosh’s 7th year, when Esther was chosen, would have been Dec. 479/ Jan. 478 BC. Accordingly, Esther was taken to the palace shortly after Xerxes’ return.
    We find no known secular evidence for the main plot of Purim, except the Celestial evidence itself of the Repeating/Matched three Purim eclipses in a row, completing the fully matched repetition this past March in 2024-2026. No works by any Persian historians from this period survived. (Probably, no such works were composed.) But the Repeating/Matching eclipses with the mirrored
history between ancient Persia and modern Iran, provide compelling enough astronomical evidence over 10 years of matching eclipses to get our attention!
The added history of the reign of Xerxes is Herodotus and his narrative ends in the 7th year of Xerxes.[9]

There were unique events going on in the third year of this king’s reign. Xerxes can fit this beautifully in that he took at least 4 years gearing up to campaign against the Greeks and he needed the support of his princes. But this also fits  a chronology of Darius as well. Darius spent the first two+ years of his reign putting down rebellions, and a feast in the third year fits perfectly. It would have finally been a celebration of having put down 9 attempted overthrows of the kingdom and numerous rebellions in the empire. Once he consolidated, it was time to celebrate and display his power.#10

Likewise, waiting till the seventh year for the wedding search fits Xerxes. He had come home wasted in his war with Greece. He lost badly and could have sought comfort for himself during this time.

James Jordan says, “we have seen that Darius is called Artaxerxes in Ezra-Nehemiah. In the Greek Septuagint throughout, Esther’s king is called Artaxerxes. Ahasuerus is between Darius & Artaxerxes in Ezra 4. Xerxes      is between Darius and Artaxerxes in Persian king lists and in Herodotus.

There is also the exact date match of the 10th month of the king’s 7th year: “Ahasuerus met Esther in the 10th month of his 7th year. Xerxes sought comfort from his harem following his defeat at Salamis in 10th month of his 7th year.” Ahasuerus banished Vashti in his 3rd year, and met Esther in his 7th year. Xerxes ruled from 486 BC, and his Greek invasion was in 480 BC (to before?) his 7th year?). The 13th year of Ahasuerus is also near Xerxes 12th year, [486BC +12 years=474BC which fits a Thucydides timeline who reigned as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, via a conventional history reigned from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC, but for these reasons are we lean to 474 BC for Xerxes I’ death. The next evidence from Gertoux fills out this picture from his article on “Dating the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes.” #11 Dating the Reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes, in: Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 40 (2018, pp. 179-206).

According to Diodorus Siculus [Historical Library XI:54-60] and Herodotus [Histories VII:1-5] referenced below; the transfer of power between Darius to Xerxes occurred with a revolt in Egypt in 486 BC, 4 years after the Persian defeat at Marathon. While the transition between Xerxes/Atraxerxes took place just after the storming of Eion in 476 BC. Xerxes recalled most of his Persian troops in the winter of 480/479 BC.[6] A final battle was engaged at Plataea in Boeotia in August 479 BC. Eion was taken by the Delian League in 476 BC led by the Athenian[7] general Cimon. This was a late event in Xerxes’ reign before Artaxerxes ascended, [Histories VII. 106-107]. Xerxes reigned 21 years via Ptolemy’s Kings List, including a 10-year co-regency with Darius his father. From the BM astronomical tablet #32234, lunar eclipses framed the death of Xerxes between June 26th, 474 BC-Total lunar eclipse as the Moon is seen in the 4 rear stars of Saggittarius, and a Partial lunar eclipse Dec. 20, 474 BC. Xerxes death was dated Wed. August 23/24, 474 BC, with his accession year 21 years earlier in 496 BC, or year 26 of Darius I. Xerxes was thus crown Prince long before Darius died, making him Crown Prince and co-regent at the same time. #12 IBID

Having declared Xerxes king, Darius was intent on his expedition. But in the year after this, and the revolt of Egypt, death came upon him in the midst of his preparation, after a reign of thirty six years; nor was it granted him to punish either the revolting Egyptians, or the Athenians. Esther 1 takes place in the third year of King Ahasuerus’ reign.

Let the king appoint overseers in all provinces of his kingdom that they may gather every beautiful young virgin to the citadel of Susa, to the harem, into the custody of Hegai, the king’s eunuch, who is in charge of the women;

All the women were to live in the harem under Hegai’s charge. Intriguingly, the name ‘Hegai‘ occurs as an officer of Xerxes in the Histories of Herodotus (ix. 34).

Esther 2:5-11

5 In [d]Shushan the [e]citadel there was a certain Jew whose name was Mordecai the son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. 6 Kish[f] had been carried away from Jerusalem with the captives who had been captured with [g]Jeconiah king of Judah, whom Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon had carried away. 7 And Mordecai had brought up Hadassah, that is, Esther, his uncle’s daughter, she had neither father nor mother. The young woman was lovely and beautiful. When her father and mother died, Mordecai took her as his own daughter. 8 So it was, when the king’s command and decree were heard, and when many young women were gathered at [h] Shushan the [i]citadel, under the custody of Hegai, that Esther also was taken to the king’s palace, into the care of Hegai the custodian of the women. 9 Now the young woman pleased him, and she obtained his favor; so he readily gave beauty preparations to her, besides [j]her allowance. Then seven choice maidservants were provided for her from the king’s palace, and he moved her and her maidservants to the best place in the house of the women. 10 Esther had not [k]revealed her people or family, for Mordecai had charged her not to reveal it. 11 And every day Mordecai paced in front of the court of the women’s quarters, to learn of Esther’s welfare and what was happening to her.

Verse 6 establishes Mordecai’s grandfather Kish as one, “who had been taken into exile from Jerusalem with captives who had been exiled with Jeconiah king of Judah, whom Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon had exiled.” The event of King Jeconiah’s exile is found in Jer. 27:19-20:

In year 8 of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, in 597 BC he removed [Jehoiachin] king Jeconiah from Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem on Adar 2, 597 BC but waited till Nisan 1 to take him captive back to Babylon to put Zedekiah on the throne as vassal king- on Nisan 10. [2 Chron. 36:10]

All the nobles of Jerusalem were included in this exile, which included Mordecai. The next character in the narrative of Esther is introduced as Hadassah, a Jewish name meaning ‘myrtle’ and her Persian name Esther meaning ‘star’, maybe a potential reference to the star–like flowers of the myrtle, seen below in the botanical illustration.

Fringe Myrtle (Calytrix tetragona) is a beautiful native shrub that keeps on giving. Not only does it cover itself in an array of starry white flowers from spring, but after flowering the calyces hang on for some weeks, shiny with long curling threads, turning golden bronze and purplish. The name Calytrix is from two Greek words meaning calyx and hair, alluding to the long fine calyx tips and the species name tetragona means four-sided, relating to the leaf cross-section.

No photo description available.
Source: Australian National Botanic Gardens

Photos: Wild Blue Mountains

Esther is without living father or mother, however her family line is also from a royal family of Jews just as Mordecai, he adopted her and was raising her as his own daughter. She found favor with Mordecai as he took her in as his own daughter. She also found favor with Hegai as he quickly brought her into the harem and gave her advantage over all the other virgins.

Verse 16 gives us the details of when this event takes place, “So Esther was taken to King Ahasuerus to his royal palace in the tenth month which is the month Tebeth, in the seventh year of his reign.” This would have been about four years from the time the king had issued his edict concerning Vashti.

Verse 17 shows the king’s response after his evening spent with Esther as we read, “The king loved Esther more than all the women, and she found favor and kindness with him more than all the virgins, so that he set the royal crown on her head and made her queen instead of Vashti.

Note that Esther still listened to the direction of her adopted father, Mordecai even as she is no longer under his care having been crowned Queen, showing her humility.

Verse 21 discloses a significant incident, “In those days, while Mordecai was sitting at the king’s gate, Bigthan and Teresh, two of the king’s officials from those who guarded the door, became angry and sought to lay hands on King Ahasuerus,” become angry enough to try and kill King Ahasuerus.

The king’s life was always in peril as this is part of the risk to having so much power, showing the palace intrigue involved that was navigated successfully by Mordecai and Esther in verse 22, where the plot became known to Mordecai and he translated the message through Queen Esther.

Verse 23 shows the results of this revelation that there was an investigation  that verified the report with a conclusion of both men being hanged on the gallows.

As with every important event that transpired during the king’s reign this one, “was written in the Book of the Chronicles in the king’s presence.” The books containing the king’s written records would have been destroyed in the fire that happened during the reign of Artexerxes, the son of King Ahasuerus.

God’s special care for His people-Israel is evident based on His foreknowledge to have all key people correctly placed to carry out His will. Only an Omni-scient All-powerful God can pull this off, as we find in the circumstances below.

A Jewish princess, not identified publicly, already resides in the citadel of Susa, who happens to be beautiful, humble, obedient, wise & charming, who catches the attention of Hegai an important official in the king’s service, one who happens to control the daily lives of all the virgins brought to the king. The king happens to adore her as well and selects her to be his queen. As her adopted Father-Mordecai happened to be seated in the Kings Gate, when a plot to kill the king was discovered and thwarted. Esther was a singular woman to deliver her nation from disaster, a rare person with a perfect blend of charm, strength, and guile, whose character was secure from the rot of wealth, power and prosperity, who at a critical juncture in history came through risked death for her people– Israel, escaped dying with them, opening God’s deliverance to His people as a providential instrument for His glorious purpose.

This month’s blog has seemingly generated more questions than perhaps the answers it has provided in certain cases. For example, if Xerxes was not Esther’s wife, who was his wife? This also begs the question of Xerxes‘ successor, as a potential offspring and heir to the Persian throne? We will explore these & other related questions in next month‘s July blog. 

From the last two blogs in May and June of 2026, we have presented information on a debate that’s raged literally for centuries on the history of timing of Persian Kings. We have included Historical, Astronomical, Biblical and Archaeological evidence in an effort to be as comprehensive and even-handed as possible, so as not to bias this material in any way. As always, I welcome any and all feed-back you may have to add to this discussion.

God Bless!

Rene’

 

Footnotes;

1. Post-exilic Bible Chronology & Identifying Esther’s Husband, Jon Nessle.
2. Ptolemy’s (Almagest V:14)

[1.]  http://www.adamoh.org/TreeOfLife.wan.io/OTCh/BM_33066-Cambyses_clay_tablet/BM_33066-Cambyses_7th_year_astronomy_clay_tablet-Initial_Review.htm

[1a] Adapted article from;  Jul 16, 523 BC – ANCHOR Partial Lunar Eclipse Yr 7 of Cambyses, Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence by Gerard Gertoux

[2] Cf. footnote 1!

[3] Notice that our placement of this event forces a definition of the meaning of the original words behind this sentence! That is, whether or not an intercalary Moon was inserted at this time! At any rate, all considerable dates requires a 12 Moon year at this point, that is, with no intercalary Moon! [Cf. footnote 4!]

[4] The conventional 524-522 BC scenario: The event of May 25, 522 BC (cf. footnote 1.) Month 2 of year 8 began on either May 24+, or else on June 22+ (if a 13th Moon is intercalated.) The 25th day of Moon 2 fell on June 17+, or else on July 16+. June 17+ is perhaps? close enough to May 25, 522 BC (Jupiter moved 0° 51’,) but not July 16+!

The alternative 512-510 BCE scenario: The event of May 29, 510 BC (cf. ftnote 1.) Month 2 of year 8 began on either May 11+, or else on June 10+ (if a 13th Moon is intercalated.) The 29th day of Moon 2 fell on June 8+, or else on July 8+. June 8+ is close enough to May 29, 510 BC (Jupiter moved 0° 15’,) but not July 8+ (Jupiter moved 2° 30’!)

Accordingly, the cuneiform behind this translation is most likely saying that the 12th Moon of this year was the last Moon of this year, and that there was no 13th Moon.

 [5] Perhaps the error is found in the translation “behind Libra”, ie. vs. “in front of Libra?”

[6] Given that Moon 2 is already defined, it follows that: The conventional 524-522 BC scenario: Moon 6, 522 BC began Sept 18+, 522 BC. The 4th day of the 6th Moon began on Sept 21+, 522 BC. But, a called for recorded event occurred after passing alpha Libra on October 7, 522 BC.

The alternative 512-510 BC scenario: Moon 6, 510 BC began on Sept 7+, 510 BC. The 4th day of the 6th Moon began on Sept 10+. But, the called for recorded event occurred after passing alpha Libra on September 22, 510 BC.

It becomes obvious that alpha Libra is not the reference star being used in this record. Most likely then, the correct reference star must be beta Libra, Zubeneschamali. The corresponding corrected dates for Jupiter’s passing Libra are Nov 11, 522 BC and Oct 27, 510 BC. [But this suggestion only aggravates the problem!]

[7] The conventional 524-522 BC scenario: After reviewing the available Jupiter events and available lunar eclipses, we may narrow considerations of the Venus events accordingly, that is, the 7th year of BM 33066 beginning in Spring of 523 BC. More precisely, the 3rd Moon of year 7 began with the New Moon June 3, 523 BC [June 3, 523 BC sunset: 18:58:43; moonset: 20:19:51; lag: 81 min 8 sec; illum.: 2.01%.]

Thus, Day 10 of Moon 3 of year 7 began at sunset June 12, 523 BC. Seems we have a problem here: Venus is in front of Cancer, not Leo! However, seeing that the first star visible with Venus on the evening sky was Regulus, alpha Leo, this too makes much sense!

Day 27 of Moon 3 of year 7 began at sunset June 29, 523 BC. Seems that here too we may have a problem?! Venus is in the area of Gemini, NOT in Cancer. However, the Sun is in Cancer. Perhaps this is an error in translation? Or, perhaps the correct answer is found in recognizing that the Sun too is a star and that the Sun was, at that time, in Cancer! Indeed, as represented by my astronomy software, SNB, Venus was visible even before sunset! And, looking up Venus and magnitude I find that Venus is brighter as a crescent than it is at its full, that is, because of its closeness to Earth…

Indeed, to me, both of these Venus notations seems powerful evidence of the astronomer’s actual first hand observation of these events, that is, as opposed to theoretical calculations as some are suggesting.

The alternative 512-510 BC scenario:

Per our findings (cf. footnote #) for the 512-510BC scenario re Jupiter, day 10 of Moon 3 of year 7, must have fallen on June 29 or 30, 511 BC. But, in the 7th year the only lunar eclipses fell, not in the 4th and 10 Moons as required by this record, but in the 2nd and 8th Moons. As there is no fit for both Jupiter events and the eclipse events as recorded on BM33066, I find the 512-510 scenario is not a workable option and can be most certainly ruled out! – Accordingly, I may now freely go on with my creation of an interpretation of BM33066 in terms of the 323-321 BC scenario…

[8] Conventional placement in July 522 BC: As observable from the Baghdad horizon on July 5, 522 BC per Starry Night Backyard software: Sunset: 19:11:36; opening of penumbral (not noticeable) shadow: 20:49:36; beginning of visible shadow: 22:02:36; starting of total eclipse: 22:59:00; end total eclipse: 00:47:00; end of visible shadow: 01:46:00; end of penumbral (not noticeable) shadow: 02:58:00.

Accordingly, the blood colored red totally eclipsed Moon began 3 hours, 48 min, and 24 seconds after sunset, and the visible eclipse began 2 hours 53 min after sunset. It follows that F. X. Kugler’s 1907 translation – “1 2/3 Doppelstunden (3h 20m,)” i.e. “1 2/3 double hours [three hours and twenty minutes]” – is a less correct translation than is “1 2/3 and 1 double hour” as found at this link.

[9] Please note that the cuneiform word translated “the north wind blew” is probably better translated in terms of “stood.” Cf. my discussion at footnote 59 under this link.

[10] Conventional placement in December 522 BC: As observable from the Baghdad horizon on December 30-31, 522 BC per Starry Night Backyard software: Sunset: 17:06:30; beginning of penumbral (invisible) eclipse shadow: 17:35:04; beginning of visible partial (64.36%) eclipse: 18:48:00; end of visible partial eclipse: 21:18:00; sunrise: 07:11:28; moonset: 07:37:52.

Notice: The facts of this eclipse do not agree with the words of the record as conventionally translated!: Not, by far, a total eclipse, and the eclipse occurred in the evening, not in the hours before dawn!

Alternatives to conventional placement: Looking at the placement of lunar eclipses between 539 BC and 500 BC, I find only one other reasonably timed lunar eclipse pair: In 512 BC…

As observable from the Baghdad horizon on June 14-15, 512 BC per Starry Night Backyard software: Sunset: 19:05:09; beginning of penumbral (invisible) eclipse shadow: 23:14:33; beginning of visible partial (76.47%) eclipse: 00:28:00; end of visible partial eclipse: 03:19:00; end of penumbral (invisible) eclipse: 04:31:00; sunrise: 04:46:41; moonset: 04:58:33.

As observable from the Baghdad horizon on December 9-10, 512 BC per Starry Night Backyard software: Sunset: 16:59:59; beginning of penumbral (invisible) eclipse shadow: 00:44:00; beginning of visible total eclipse: 01:53:00; beginning of totally eclipsed Moon: 02:49:00; end of totally eclipsed Moon: 04:34:00; end of visible eclipse: 05:29:00; end penumbral eclipse: 06:38:40; sunrise: 06:58:15; moonset: 07:10:33.

Conclusion re alternative placement in time: Seeing that the beginning of the June 14/15, 512 BC visible eclipse is too far removed from sunset while also not a total eclipse, while the December 9/10, 512 BC eclipse seem a fairly good fit, I find that most likely the translation of the cuneiform is in serious error and must be thoroughly reviewed and reconsidered. Perhaps the best approach to this problem is to begin by considering the within record of Jupiter & Saturn? Cf. lines 1-3 reverse!

[11] If “total eclipse” is a correct translation, then this does not fit 522 BC! Please cf. the Notice under footnote #10!

[12] Cuneiform words translated “the south and north winds blew”, please cf. footnote#9.

#13 Seforim Eclipse Blog [https://seforimblog.com/2013/02/identifying-achashverosh-and-esther-in/]
A. IBID
B. IBID
C. IBID
D1. IBID
D2. IBID
E. IBID
F. IBID
G. IBID
H. IBID
I. IBID

14. Dating the Reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes, in: Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Series Archaeologica 40 (2018, pp. 179-206).
15. IBID

The Greco-Persian War Astronomical History circa 480 BC

The Greco-Persian War Astronomical History circa 480 BC

Welcome to the May 2026 Blog folks! This month we will view a history of the Greco-Persian Wars, focusing on the Persian side from a Biblical perspective, starting with a line of Persian Kings from Darius–son of Ahasuerus-Spouse of Queen Esther, to rebuilding the Walls and Temple at Jerusalem. This fell into  the times of the Matching Eclipses of 480-469BC, as they reflect in Repeating Eclipses of 2024-2034 AD. This matching of Luni–Solar Eclipses embodies part of the astronomical, archaeological and historical evidence we’re presenting in this study coinciding with the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s Walls and Temple during the period of Ezra-Esther-Nehemiah, aligning with Daniel’s end times prophecies, before Christ’s Return to unify the Church of his Spiritual Body, at the Gathering Together. The preparation of Christ’s Spiritual Body, which he is the Head, includes Messianic Christian Jews with the Born Again Saints in Christ, who is our Peace–having made both One, broken down the middle wall of Partition; has abolished in his flesh the emnity, even dogmatic laws of Commandments contained in ordinances in order to make of the two, one new man in himself, so making Peace. Eph. 2:16 “And that He might reconcile them both to God in one body through the cross, thereby putting to death the enmity. 17 And He came and preached peace to you who were afar off and to those who were near. 18 For through him we both have access by one Spirit to the Father.

Christ Our Cornerstone in the Temple 

19 Now, therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, 20 Having been built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the Chief Cornerstone, 21 In whom the whole building, being fitted together, grows into a holy Temple in the Lord, 22 in whom you also are being built together for a dwelling place of God in the Spirit. [Eph. 2:14-22]

As we expand on re-building and dedication of the physical Temple–and walls of Jerusalem, so we must be cognizant of Christ building of his body-and his Spiritual Temple, [Jn. 2:19] as enemies of these spiritual works resist, so we stand together against their hostility, even as our spiritual enemy opposed the rebuilding of the Walls and Temple of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah-Ezra. The following Biblical Structure of Ezra chapt. 4-6; lays out a structural context related to these activities in Ezra-Nehemiah.

The Decree of Cyrus, marked the beginning of a new period in the history of the Jews, issued at Ecbatana in his first regnal year (Ezra 1:1), in the summer of 537 BC, if reckoned from the fall of the Babylonian Empire according to the Jewish method, from fall to fall. Cyrus‘ official decree, (1) dealt with directives, exact specifications on the new Temple, (2) Provided for covering of the building expenses by royal funds, and (3) Commanded a return of vessels of the former Temple to the Jews, (Ezra 6:3-5).

The context of the Structure of Ezra 4, is from E.W. Bullinger’s Companion Bible for Ezra 4:1-6:22, seen below, is an Extended Alternation;#1

The Temple Building & Dedication

F1; Ezra 4:1-6:15 Building
 G:Ezra 4:1-2; Adversaries/ Temptation
  H:Ezra 4:3; Obedience to God’s Word
   J:Ezra 4:4-16; Opposition Letter to Cyrus
    K:Ezra 4:17-22; King’s Answer-success of plot
     L: Ezra 4:23-24; Work Cessation
      M: Ezra 4:24; Duration of Cessation
 G: Ezra 5:1; Helpers-Prophets-Exhortation
H: Ezra 5:2; Obedience to God’s Word
J: Ezra 5:3-17; Opposition Letter to Darius
K: Ezra 6:1-12; King’s Answer-Defeat of plot
L:Ezra 6:13-14; Work Recommencment
M:Ezra 6:15; Date of Completion

The section reflected below relates to J:Ezra 4:4-16; 6:15– Opposition Letter to Cyrus; in the above Structure. 

Here we find Darius as son of Ahasuerus, while below in Ezra 4:6-7, we see Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes being used as a synonymous repetition for the same king, as Darius’ Father. As in a Biblical sub-Structure of these verses based on related & corresponding a,b,c lines as follows; “A“ link to “A,” “B”  to “B,” and “C” to “C.” “A” In the reign of Ahasuerus links to “A” in v. 6-7; “in the days of Artaxerxes.” To whom & when. “B“; enemies of Judah and Benjamin wrote… “C” contents of letter. “A” The days of Artaxerxes. “B” to Artaxerxes- king of Persia. “B2” Judah’s enemies con’t. “C” Letter’s contents to the King Artaxerxes I from your servants. #2  

Ezra 4:6-11 [A] In the reign of Ahasuerus, in the beginning of his reign, [B] they wrote an [C] accusation against the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem. 7 In [A] the days of Artaxerxes also, Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabel, and the rest of their companions [B] wrote to Artaxerxes king of Persia; [see Neh. 2:1,19] and the letter was written in Aramaic script, and translated into the Aramaic language… [B2] Judah’s enemies con’t.-v. 9-10–9 From Rehum the commander, Shimshai the scribe, and the rest of their companions-representing the Dinaites, Tarpelites, Apharsathchites, the people of Persia and Erech and Babylon and Shushan, the Dehavites, the Elamites, 10 and the rest of the nations whom the great and noble Osnapper [Ashurbanipal] took captive and settled in the cities of Samaria and the remainder beyond [g]the River and[h] so forth. 11
 [C] This copy of a letter sent him. To King Artaxerxes I from your servants, the men of the region beyond the river, and so forth: [Ezra 4:11-16]

As an addendum to this study; I’m adding a Timeline that emerges from a study brought to my attention by Rev. Nessle on; “Post-exilic Bible Chronology that Identifies Esther’s Husband.” In his work Jon shows; “that Xerxes 1 was too late, and Arsames [Persian] was too early, and that the only candidate fitting all the details given in Scripture must be Darius 1.” Historians usually refer to King Cyrus; conquerer of Babylon, replaced by his son Cambyses, after which Darius Hystapses prevailed. His reign was followed by Xerxes 1, but confusion has centered around a throne name of Ahauserus– “venerable king” as we find in Esther 1:1. The Bible’s use of throne names like this and Artaxerxes, the Great King or Darius “the Maintainer” can be applied to any of Peria’s ruler’s, not to be confused with modern assigned counterparts. Proof Ahauserus was a throne name we find in a preamble to the above Biblical structure; figurative Parenthesis in Esther 1:1, as Rev. Nessle’s query points out; “Why is there a need for explanation unless there were more than one person called by this name?” #2a

In the 6 month reign and time following Smerdis, Darius contended against a number of pretender’s for the throne, till political conditions stabilized, and work resumed on the Temple in Darius’ 2nd-3rd year-[520-519BC]. In Darius‘ Zoroastrian heritage, the Jews likely welcomed a return to more amicable times they enjoyed previously under Cyrus & Cambyses. Cyrus also appointed  a Jew of royal blood, Zerubabel to be governor of the province of Judea, that was part of the satrapy “Beyond the the River,” the great division of the Empire that comprised all lands between the river Euphrates and Egypt. #2b

Three individuals are named as “Governor of Babylon and Across-the-River” between 535 – 486 BC [Stolper1989]. #2c Xerxes I came to throne as the Great King in 486 BC. One of these three has been identified in both Persian and Biblical records of Ezra, “Tattenai, governor on this side the river” (Ezra 5:3; 6:6,13), in Ezra 6:13 below, his office administered portions of Asia Minor and the coastal zone all the way to Egypt; “in this province was all Phoenicia, and part of Syria called Palestine, and Cyprus.” [Herodotus, Histories 3.91].#3

Temple Rebuild and Dedication

Ezra 6:13-15 13 Then Tattenai, governor [#6347-6, prefect Ez. 5:3] of the region beyond the River, Shethar-Boznai, and their companions diligently did as stated by what King Darius had sent. 14 So the elders of the Jews built, and they prospered through the prophesying of Haggai the prophet and Zechariah the son of Iddo. And they built and finished it, according to the commandment of God of Israel, & according to the command of Cyrus, Darius, & Artaxerxes   king of Persia. 15 Now the Temple was finished on the third day of the month of Adar, which was in the sixth year of the reign of King Darius.#3a [structure of Ez. 4-6 and rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple]

“Tatnai, governor on this side of the river” (the province called “Beyond the River” from the Mesopotamian view), with his official staff, to Jerusalem (Ezra 5:3), probably on a routine inspection. Since it was long known that the Satrap of the territories of “Beyond the River” and “Babylonia” during the early years of Darius was Ushtani, it was thought that Tatnai was Ushtani’s subordinate in the administration of “Beyond the River,” to aid Ushtani as co-administer of these two large provinces.

Tatnai as a competent Persian official, upon seeing an industrious building site  at the Temple, he asked for the royal permit. The elders of the Jews replied—while Zerubbabel as governor awaited a disposition of the new official. The Jews told the story of the destruction of the first Temple, their captivity in Babylon, and their return under Cyrus, with his return of Temple treasures, and decree to rebuild the Temple. Tatnai was favorably swayed by the work of the Jews, allowed them to continue their project for the present, while research was done for an official written permit, that he reported to the king. To this he added names of the Jewish leaders, requesting an investigation in the archives of Babylon, and a royal decision concerning his attitude toward the Jews, (Ezra 5:3-17, 6:2).

Xerxes the Great; c. 518 BC – 465 BC)[5] was a Persian ruler who reigned as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, via conventional histories reigned from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC, but we are leaning to an alternate date in 475 BC for the death of Xerxes I, below. He was son of Darius the Great and Atossa– daughter of Cyrus the Great. Xerxes’ father was Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC), the monarch of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit not kinsman of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Empire.[8][9] Xerxes‘ mother-Atossa, was daughter of Cyrus.[10] Darius and Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes I was born near 518 BC.[12] #3b

The title of King of Kings appears in inscriptions of kings of Urartu.[2] This title was also used by rulers of the Median Empire, since its rulers borrowed much of their royal symbolism and protocol from Urartu and elsewhere in Mesopotamia. The Achaemenid Persian variant; Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām, of this title, is Median in form, implies Persian Achaemenids may have taken it from the Medes, rather than Mesopotamia.[2]

Xerxes’ co-regency is challenged because he only wrote an inscription (while his brothers Hystapes and Arsames still lived): Xerxes I said: Darius had other sons, but the pleasure of Ahuramazda was Darius my father made me greatest after him. As my father Darius  left the throne, with Ahuramazda, I became king on my father’s throne (XPf §4). But, several carved reliefs at Persepolis show that Xerxes was designated; crown prince, years prior to Darius‘ death. According to a conventional representation of kings, the king seated on his throne was Darius before Xerxes; as Crown prince, [see Fig. 1 shows: a bas relief taken from Persepolis below]. What is difficult to separate in World history, can be easier in Biblical reckoning, as for example: the Bible counts Princes as kings if exerting royal authority during Co-regency-or during the Senior King’s Reign. This appears to be the case with Belshazzar-a key type who was called Crown Prince, [Assyrian Term] in Nebuchadnezzar’s reign.

We also find in Dan. 9:1 below;

Dan. 9:1 In the first year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, of the lineage of the Medes, made king over the realm of the Chaldeans 2 in the first year of his reign I, Daniel, understood by the books the number of years specified by the word of the Lord through Jeremiah the prophet, He would accomplish 70 years in the desolations of Jerusalem.

In our recent OT History Seminar-Ren Manetti lays out 15 prophecies of Dan. 8:20- in reference to the future Antichrist through Dan. 11:2, with another 40 prophecies-in Dan. 11:1-19 that blend in seamlessly with the Persian historic headlines. All the revelation from God, given to Daniel here is addressed to Daniel, and interpreted by an angel or angels, who insured Daniel grasped what was divinely imparted to him. Dan. 11:1 refers to a 1st year of Darius “the Mede.”#4

Dan. 11:2 says; “Also in the first year of Darius the Mede, I, even I, stood up to confirm and strengthen him.) 2 And now I will tell you the truth: Behold, three more kings will arise in Persia, and the fourth shall be far richer than them all; by his strength, through his riches, he stirred up all against the realm of Greece.

In Greek history 3 kings rose prior to “Darius” the first 2 were; 1. Cambyses, then a missing #2nd Artaxerxes, not recorded in history, only in Scripture-next #3. was Darius 1-“the Mede,” the Father of Xerxes 1, rising as 4th king whose riches passed them all; and by his strength, through his riches he stirred up all against the realm of Greece.”#5 This kingly line matched Darius & Xerxes I’ history and royal geneology, that via Herodotus; their “ancestry reigned for 22 generations covered an 505 yr. era.“#6 Darius’ father [Hystapses] and Grand- dad [Atraxerxes] lived on as he was crowned, in shared co-regency a declared-heir of Hystapses’, appeasing a fractured nobility. Darius‘ ruled the military as the first Persian War opened in 490BC, while Hystapses ruled the Political Administration behind the scenes. So, the 1st Grecian wars opened as Darius 1 was defeated in the 1st Persian invasion, at the 490BC-Battle of Marathon.

In his 2017 “Analysis of the Prophecies of Daniel at the Hope “Mini-Summit” in Tampa, Fl, Rev. Jon Nessle said: in reference to the 70 weeks or “sevens” are weeks of years, or Sabbatical Years which makes the span 490 years. “Most chronologer’s take a starting point of the count in Artaxerxes I’s 20th year, when they say Nehemiah was given the Governorship of Judea so that he could accomplish his goal of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. Rev. Nessle disagreed with this, since Xerxes I was NOT the husband of Esther, as most historians suppose. Darius I had to be Esther’s Husband because of the age of Mordecai. A Xerxes I scenario makes Mordechai an impossible minimum of 124 years old in the 12th year, when he was appointed Grand Vizier.”#7

In support of this, Mordecai appears among exiles deported from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, [Est. 3:5] but that deportation occurred 112 years before Xerxes became king, explaining why Darius should be in power as Esther’s husband during this time.

[Via the Athenian historian– Thucydides, who served as General for Athens during the war, his account of the conflict is widely considered to be a classic, and renowned for his accurate chronology, was deemed as one of the earliest scholarly historical works; (The Peloponnesian War I:98;137). Thucydides was born in 471 BC as a defeated Athenian general who turned to writing history after being relieved of command. As a younger contemporary of Artaxerxes I, his History of the Peloponnesian War recounts the warfare between the rival alliances led by Sparta and Athens through the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been called the father of “scientific history” due to his strict standards of evidence-gathering and analysis of cause and effect with-out reference to intervention by the gods.#7a

From Plutarch (Life of Theseus §§35,36),#7b after Themistocles met with Artaxerxes I, Xerxes’ successor, following the fall of Naxos after Skyros fall, dated with the archonship of Phaedo in 476 BC, Themistocles‘ meet occurred soon after 475 BC, not 465. The present Achaemenid history-mainly sourced from official Babylonian king lists, ignored co-regents and usurpers. Official versions are contradicted by contracts dated “year, month, day,” so proving the existence of frequent co-regencies and usurpers. Also, via astronomical tablet-referenced BM 32234, Xerxes’ death was dated 14/V/21 between two lunar eclipses, one; 14/III/21 (6/26/475 BC), that was total, and a 2nd partial dated 14/VIII/21 (12/20/475 BC), [see Comparison Chart #3 Repeating-Matching Eclipses below]. Thus, Xerxes I death dated on 8/24/475 BC. Also, Artaxerxes I’s death is fixed before a partial Solar Eclipse (3/21/424 BC), by Thucydides (The Peloponnesian War IV:50-52) implying an absurd co-regency of Darius II with a dead king for at least one year! Supporting this, Plutarch and Justinus validly show a long co-regency of Artaxerxes, but with his first son Darius B (434–426).#8

Further support of the 475-474 BC date appears reasonable for Artaxerxes’ 20th year, as his first year in office of Persian “Governor beyond the River,” but not as the “Great King.” As Governor, he was a “king” (Basileus) over the Persian dominions of present day Cyprus, Turkey, Lebanon, and Israel. As Governor, Artaxerxes I would have direct administration of Jerusalem; so, the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Nehemiah 2:1) ruling over Jerusalem was in 454 BC. Both Persian and the Greek records speak of “kings” in reference to one holding governing authority, but still subject to the “Great King.“ Since both Artaxerxes and his father, the Great King Xerxes were alive, a harmonized reading of apparent conflicting histories over the last two millennia comes to the surface. #9

The arrangement of the intercalary months in a chronology without coregency has several anomalies, especially the presence of two months Ulul in a single cycle. By contrast, in a chronology with co-regency, has two distinct cycles, the abnormal intercalary month in year 30 of Darius (Persepolis) links to another cycle ending in year 4 of Xerxes. The titulature of Xerxes (496–475) in Egypt and the data of Diodorus confirm the co-regency of 10 years w/ Darius (522–486), as do Elephantine papyri with many double dates both in civil and lunar calendars. #9a

Rev. Nessle continues: “This fact moves the time of the Jews influence in the Persian State back, and adversely affects any starting point for the 490 year option for Daniel’s Prophecy. The 2nd Temple construction was re-started in Elul 519BC and was finished in Adar 515BC, during Darius 1, Ezra arrived in Jerusalem soon after. Mordechai’s appointment as Grand Vizier and Purim occurred in the winter of 509 BC. The Jewish influence in the Court of Persia persisted eventually involving the appointment of Nehemiah–a known Jew, to a high position as Chief of Security. Rev. Nessle’s belief is that in 501 BC-the 20th year of Darius I, the wall was built. Tishri 1 fell on Sept. 19th, 522BC during a time when the Hebrew Lunar Calendar and months, were synchronous with Babylonian & Persian calendar. Darius assasinated an imposter contending for the throne; Smerdis/Gaumata [?] on Sept. 29th and became king shortly there- after. Therefore his Accession Year was from Tishri 1, 522BC to Tishri 1, 521BC.
So Nisan in his 20th year would have been in 501 BC. If the starting point for the 490 years was the King’s Appointment of Nehemiah for that task, it ends in 11BC, which is not significant for anything. Nehemiah’s King cannot be Xerxes 1, because Nehemiah mentioned him reigning in his 32nd year, [Neh. 5:15]. Xerxes’ reign was only 20 years. If Artaxerxes 1’s 20th year, then 490 Jewish Tishri years results in 44AD.” Rev. Nessle quotes Daniel 9:20-27 here, where he defers to his Appendix from “The Path to Eternity,” where there’s an Introversion  structure signaled by a repetition of [seal] in verse 24. This is the only thing that fits.” #10

“Counting 490 years from the 20th year [501BC] of Darius [Sept. 522BC to Nov. 486, yields 11BC, no significance. Counting 490 years from the 20th year [4454 BC] of Artaxerxes I [465-424] yields 44AD– no correlation. #11  However, with an alternate date of Xerxes I’s death given by Thucydides and others in 475BC, puts the start of the reign of Artaxerxes 1 in the year of 475-474BC, opening a word starting in the 20th year of Persian King “Artaxerxes 1,” according to Nehemiah 2:1-6.

Nehemiah 2:1-6 And it came to pass in the month of Nisan, in the twentieth year of King [a]Artaxerxes, when wine was before him, that I took the wine and gave it to the king. Now I had never been sad in his presence.  2 Therefore the king said to me, “Why is your face sad, since you are not sick? This is nothing but sorrow of heart.” So I became dreadfully afraid, 3 and said to the king, “May the king live forever! Why should my face not be sad, when the city, the place of my fathers’ tombs, lies waste, and its gates are burned with fire?” 4 Then the king said to me, “What do you request?” So I prayed to the God of heaven.
 And I said to the king, “If it pleases the king, and if your servant finds favor in your sight, I ask that you send me to Judah, to the city of my fathers’ tombs, that I may rebuild it.”
6 Then the king said to me (the queen also sitting beside him), “How long will your journey be? And when will you return?” So it pleased the king to send me; and I set him a time.

In year 20 Artaxerxes I- gave his trusted cup-bearer Nehemiah a commission to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 2:1). Establishing the date of this event has created confusion because there are 2 different lines of testimony. Diodorus in his Library of History places Artaxerxes I on the throne in 464 BC, making his 20th year 444 BC. Claudius Ptolemy (2nd cent. AD) adopts Diodorus’ dating in his influential Canon, which provides a list of kings from various countries spanning a 900-year period. Moreover, these dates were copied into Eusebius’ Chronicles during the 4th cent. AD. But, a differing witness, and second line of testimony occurs when historical events correlate with historical writings of Thucydides. Then the date of Artaxerxes I as governor, or sub-king to Xerxes is 474 BC which also was the date Nehemiah was using. A Summary of the debate over last two millennia [McNeil-1970]; “That Thucydides’… is the best evidence we have… If, on the other hand, we refuse Thucydides’ order on faith but try to check it against what we learn from other sources, it becomes evident to check this is improbable. The only other linked account of the 465-450BC period is Diodorus, who to some extent is dependent upon Thucydides… [and wrote] centuries after the events.”#11a

Ptolemy, noted Greek-Egyptian astronomer (2nd century A.D.), in his Canon of the Kings, assigns 21 years to the reign of Xerxes & 41 years to Artaxerxes immediately following. But as the Canon is dated beyond doubt by 19 eclipses and other astronomical synchronisms and signs, it is certain that in official Egyptian reckoning Xerxes’ year 21 (the year 283 in Ptolemy’s Nabonassar Era) correlates to the chronology of Olympiads.

Olympiad Chronology

The BC/AD dating system had not been developed even in the time of Eusebius (260-340 AD) [Eusebius – Chronicles] and dating the reign of Artaxerxes as the Great King requires reviewing the Greek Olympiad chronology system. Every four years in the midsummer around August, the Greek city-states, swore oaths to meet together in truce, if not in peace, for the Olympic competition. Because these Olympiads were not linked to the reign of any specific king, or kingdom, they provide a convenient method for dating events in history. The Olympiad counting system began in mid-summer and Olympic years always covered part  of 2 Julian years (mid-Aug. to next mid-Aug.). Olympiad counting was adopted in Greece well before Artaxerxes I. The start date for this counting was 776BC in Olympiad 1. Olympiad reckoning employed both the number of the Olympiad and the year within the cycle, 1-4. Eusebius in his Chronicles carries Olympiad dating from its inception in 776BC to 217AD, the 249th Olympiad. The Olympiad dating is completely reliable for dating Persia’s invasion of Greece by Xerxes I-father of Artaxerxes I, in 480 BC. [Shaw-2003].#11b

Seventy-fifth Olympiad [480 BC]… It was in this year king Xerxes opened his campaign against Greece- Olympiad 75.2 (479 BC; Xerxes year 6/7) Herodotus, Histories, Book 9 – concludes the history of the Persian invasion the following summer, when the Persian forces staying in Greece were defeated at Platea – ending the last Persian incursion on the Greek mainland. Olympiad 75.3 (478BC; Xerxes year 7/8): Athenians returned & rebuild. Thucydides; Peloponnesian War 1.89: “When the Persians, defeated by the Hellenes on sea and land, retreated from Europe, and the remnant of the fleet, had taken refuge at Mycalè, and there perished…

They both [Eusebius & Herodotus] included Artabanus with a seven month reign between Xerxes and Artaxerxes, i.e., in the 4th year of 78th Olympiad (465  14). They also dated Artaxerxes’ year 20 in the 4th year of the 83rd Olympiad. 20/11c

This added research uncovers that “Artaxerxes I” ascended the throne in the year 475 BC, and his 20th year of reign would then be 455 BC. But, some of Christendom’s secular scholars will tell us “Artaxerxes I” began his reign in the year 465 BC, making his 20th year 445 BC, a difference of about ten years. The question then is who is correct? This short study intends to show 4 basic lines of evidence, in support of the date 475 BC. as a correct date for the start of Artaxerxes reign vs. 465BC. A 1st line of evidence: came in the year 1847AD, from a German scholar named Ernst Hengstenberg, in his book: “Christology of the Old Testament“, saying, “For then the 20th year of Artaxerxes is the year 455 BC“, and “Artaxerxes 1st full regnal year began in 474 BC“. Also, the book;“Pay Attention to Daniel’s Prophecy” relates this in a 1999 printing, from p. 197 we find “Ernst Hengstenberg in his Christology of the Old Testament; Artaxerxes 1’s reign commenced in 474 BC, #12 as do other following sources. 

In Archaeological history, the bas relief taken from Persepolis, in Fig. 1, below of the man sitting on the throne is none other than Persian King Darius.

Representations of lions can be found frequently in Persepolis, for the city’s entire purpose, after all, was to direct attention to the great king of Persia. The central relief, now displayed in the Archaeological Museum of Tehran, brought the focus of the room and all its carved figures to the image of Darius, seated on his throne, flanked by his son, and receiving the tributes of the visitors.

A Persian coutier leads a foreign delegate by the hand – Persepolis Apadana

A Persian coutier leads a foreign delegate by the hand - Persepolis Apadana
The figures are recognized as Darius and his son Xerxes as they commissioned the work, but the reliefs are also intentionally ambiguous, not capturing any unique features of Darius himself. In that way, the relief serves also as a larger, symbolic depiction of the strong Achaemenid royal line, Great king and ready successor, at the center of the great Persian Empire.

Enthroned Darius with Xerxes behind - central relief of the Persepolis Apadana, found in the treasury

Figure 1. Enthroned Darius with Xerxes behind– central Bas relief of the Persepolis Apadana, found in the Treasury. 12a.

Somewhat unique to ancient kingdoms is the tolerance of the Persian king and empire reflected in those images of the monarchy. Where Greek and Roman art often shows their leaders crushing surrounding nations, the Persian courtiers are shown leading them by the hand to come before Darius. It was a powerful piece of propaganda for all those who entered the halls, but also largely true. Having been violently subjugated by the Assyrians, Cyrus worked to build an empire that would integrate its conquered nations and remain respectful of their cultures and religions.

As we turn our gaze to a history of religious policies of the Achaemenids. The Achaemenid rulers were Zoroastrian, but they were extremely tolerant of other religions in their Empire and even contributed to building of temples and gave special privileges to priesthoods.#12b On cylinder inscriptions; Cyrus records “I gave daily care to his (Marduk’s) work”.12c Cyrus rebuilt the temple of Marduk; Cyrus and Darius both let the Jews deduct rebuilding cost of the Jerusalem Temple from their taxes. Cambyses was no less tolerant.” He and Darius both partook in a ceremony; called “seizing the hands of Marduk” at the statue of Bel-Marduk in Esagila, which entitled them in the eyes of the Babylonians to bear the title “king of Babylon.”

Notice that his attendants to his left and to his right are all lower than him, and that his head is above them all. Now, notice the man standing directly behind him. He is standing on the same elevated platform as the king, and his clothes are almost identical to his. His right hand is resting on the high back of his throne, and his head is at the same level as well. This is unusual, as ordinarily the king’s head would be higher than all others. Who is this man? None other than Xerxes, Darius’ son. Also notice the lotus that is being carried in the left hand of both Xerxes and Darius, and the scepter being held in Darius’ right hand–the king. This image shows powerful evidence that there was, in fact, a coregency between father and son. This same line of evidence has also been provided in the Insight Book Vol II page 615 entitled “Evidence from Persian sources“.#13

A Third line of evidence: is what is known as cuneiform tablet BM 65494 taken from the British Museum. It is a business document from Borsippa dated to the 50th year of Artaxerxes I.

Tablet BM 65494 dated 4/V1/50 of Artaxerxes I Stolper reconstituted the prosopography of Murashu's family and has dated it according to the accepted chronology’*’. According to this reconstruction (choice 1), length of service is 27.5 years for the first two generations, 20.5 years for the third and 11.5 years for the fourth, which would be a surprising rejuvenation’. By contrast, taking into account Darius B (choice 2), we get a more balanced period of activity for four generations with an average of 22.5 years respectively for the first two, then 20.5 years and 21.5 years for the two following ones:

Tablet BM 65494 dated 4/V1/50 of Artaxerxes I –Stolper reconstituted the prosopography of Murashu’s family and has dated it according to the accepted chronology’*’. 13a

In the 2nd graphic provided, the number 50 is written in Akkadian language found is in the lower right corner of the tablet to find it. The final picture below is the Akkadian numerical system, shows how they would write the number 50, which exactly matches this cuneiform tablet, above.#14

This shows robust archaeological evidence of Artaxerxes’ reign exceeded 41 years. And that the 51st year of Artaxerxes was 424 BC, making his first regnal year 474 BC, and not 465 BC as some of Christendom’s secular scholars would have us believe.

Fourth line of evidence: Archbishop James Usher in his book entitled the “Annals of the World“, published back in 1650 AD, made these paraphrased statements “In the year 455 BC, that was the 20th year of Artaxerxes I, when Nehemiah requested to obtain permission from the king to be the governor of Judah and to rebuild Jerusalem (Nehemiah 2:1-6). This event marks the start of Daniel’s 70 weeks.” #15

These four, powerful lines of evidence, show a correct date to the beginning of Artaxerxes reign, and how we may unlock a secret to the start date of Daniel 9:24-27. Many thanks to Ernst Hengstenberg for his work published in 1847, and James Ussher for his book published in the year 1650AD. I’m also thankful to the British Museum for providing the cuneiform tablet BM 65494, and finally the headquarters staff at Jehovah’s Witnesses (WTBTS) for their help in grasping the regnal year start of King Artaxerxes I’ in 474 B.C., with his 20th year as 455 BC.

The last Year of Xerxes and the 1st Year of Artaxerxes

As we have seen throughout the reigns involved here; regnal-year numbers in the Egyptian calendar are known from astronomically fixed reckoning of Ptolemy’s Canon and synchronisms of several double-dated papyri. It is also known in the Persian calendar from the Saros list, based on the 18-year Saros cycle. #16

ACCESSION OF ARTAXERXES I

Figure 2. Xerxes and Artaxerxes in Three Calendars

The regnal years of Xerxes (shortened in this drawing by an 18-year gap of the Saros cycle) and the early years of Artaxerxes are shown as reckoned (1) In the Egyptian calendar (with years beginning in December), (2) in the Persian calendar (with years beginning in the spring), and (3) in the Jewish calendar (with years beginning in the autumn), all three aligned against the back-ground of the BC years.

The Saros list is extant on two clay tablets containing a series of regnal years at eighteen-year intervals based on a Babylonian Eclipse cycle (published by J. N. Strassmaier in reports in ZA, VII [~Sgz], zoo, 201; VIII [1893], 106). #17 Starting with the 7th year of Nabonidus, this list includes the year of Xerxes and the years 6 and 24 of Artaxerxes.

A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO AN ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY THROUGH SYNCHRONISMS DATED BY ASTRONOMY

The death of Xerxes is dated, at the present time, in 465 BC. This date comes mainly from the official Babylonian chronology, however, the testimony of Thucydides and from some Elephantine Egyptian records support dating of 475 BC. A careful chronological analysis of Babylonian astronomical tablets allows a fixing of a precise date of Xerxes’ death on August 24th, 475 BC. An official Babylonian chronology is based on the tablet BM 34576 (King List copy dated 99 BC). #18

Likewise, the death of Artaxerxes I is fixed precisely by Thucydides (The Peloponnesian War IV:50-52) just before a partial Solar Eclipse (21 March 424 BC) which implies absurd co-regency of Darius II with a dead king for at least one year! The arrangement of the intercalary months in a chronology without co-regency has several anomalies especially the presence of two months Ulul in a single cycle. By contrast, in a chronology with co-regency, and two distinct cycles, the abnormal intercalary month in year 30 of Darius (Persepolis) links to another cycle ending in year 4 of Xerxes. The titulature of Xerxes I (496-475) in Egypt and data of Diodorus confirm a Co-regency of 10 years with Darius-1 (522-486), with Elephantine papyri and many double dates with civil and lunar calendars. #19

A popular date of Xerxes 1′ death in 465 BC by mainstream historians, comes mainly from the official Babylonian chronology, recorded in the King’s List such as the tablet BM 34576 (copy dated 99 BC) 1 , but a witness of Thucydides support the dating in 475 BC, added to this, careful chronological analysis of Babylonian astronomical Tablets allows a fixing of a precise date of Xerxes’ death on August 24 in 475 BC. Why do mainstream historians prefer to rely on the Babylonian royal lists to establish the Achaemenid chronology, rather than on evidence from Greek historians who clearly mention several usurper kings and co-regencies?#20

We can agree that the Book of Esther has a historical setting in the reign of Darius, replete with details of Persian court life. A purpose of this study, while not denying romantic and ritual elements and a complicated blend of  of history and religion, is a return to search for historical material, aligned with an Astronomical Chronology especially in Darius/Xerxes‘ reigns, with solid links to the Book of Esther, and a Bible Chronology. A good starting place may be the historical seed in the Book of Esther with religious policies of King Darius I, in whose reign events of the book are set, as his decree singled out the Jews as a religious-ethnic group in Persia for destruction, albeit fomented by Haman. 

An initial question to be answered is the Jewish seed of Mordecai and Esther. The Jewish name ‘Mordechai‘ is found on multiple occasions in the Bible. #21 The name “Mordecai“ shows on a list of Jews who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2, Neh. 7:7). 2 Now these are the people of the province who returned from Babylonian captivity, of those carried away, by the king of Babylon–Nebuchadnezzar, who returned to Jerusalem & Judah, all to their own city. 2 Those who returned with Zerubbabel: Jeshua; [a man of Pahath-moab with Zerubbabel [Ez. 2:6], Nehemiah, [Neh. 7:7] Seraiah, [1Chron. 6:13-4] Reelaiah, Bilshan, Mordecai, known by some as finance officer at Susa under Darius 1. [Est. 2:7] [c]Mispar, Bigvai, [d]Rehum, [Ez. 4:8] and Baanah, numbered among the men of the people of Israel: The name Mordecai, listed in Aramaic; see G. R. Driver, Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century BC. (Oxford 1957) 20 n. 2. It also occurs in the Treasury Tablets from Persepolis;
G.G. Cameron, Persepolis Treasury Tablets (Chicago 1948) 85; also found in an undated text, probably from the end of Darius’ reign or the beginning of Xerxes I, an official’s name, perhaps an accountant/scribe, on tour from Susa; #22

There is no other “Mordecai” in the Bible, and every leader on the list of exiles  who returned ie; (Zerubbabel the son of Shetiel of royal blood, Jeshua the high priest, Nehemiah the cup-bearer to the king of Persia, Seraiah the son of a former high priest Hilkiah, etc.) all are VIP‘s! These events occuring next in Nehemiah, happen AFTER the book of Esther, when Nehemiah “is governor” (Neh 8:9), who likely became governor by Mordecai, the Grand Vizier. #22a

Ezra came to Judea in the seventh year of King Xerxes, in 479 BC. We are now referring to the 20th year of king Artaxerxes, and with the death of Xerxes in 475BC and the accession year of Artaxerxes in 474 BC-makes it 455 BC. For we have not an innumerable multitude of books among us, in disagreement or contradicting one another: [as the Greeks have:] but only twenty two books: which contain the records of all the past times: which are justly believed to be divine. (Josephus, Against Apion, 1.9) #22b

Josephus goes on to explain the division & categories of the Hebrew OT books:

And of them five belong to Moses: which contain his laws, and the traditions of the origin of mankind, till his death. This interval of time was little short of three thousand years. But as to the time from the death of Moses, till the reign of Artaxerxes, King of Persia, who reigned after Xerxes, the Prophets, who were after Moses, wrote down what was done in their times, in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God; and precepts for the conduct of human life. (Josephus, Against Apion, 1.9) #22c

Josephus continues to explain the CHRONOLOGY of when these were written:

’Tis true, our history hath been written since Artaxerxes very particularly; but hath not been esteemed of the like authority with the former by our forefathers; because there hath not been an exact succession of Prophets since that time. And how firmly we have given credit to these books of our own nation, is evident by what we do. For during so many ages having already passed, no one has been so bold, as either to add any thing to them; to take any thing from them; or to make any change in them. But it is become natural to all Jews, immediately, and from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain divine doctrines; and to persist in them: and, if occasion be, willingly to die for them. (Josephus, Against Apion, 1.9) #22d

The extra books he is talking about are what we would call the “apocrypha.” These include the books of Enoch, Maccabees, Tobit, and many others. However, the last “succession of Prophets since that time” ends in Artaxerxes reign, who is Malachi. And so THAT is the chronology of the last parts of the Old Testament.

As there are 39 books in our Old Testament Bibles, why does Josephus refer to only 22 books? This is due to the OT scrolls not dividing 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations, or any of the minor prophets (Amos to Malachi) into separate books. This means the books that Josephus is talking about are the following: #22e

  1. Genesis 2. Exodus 3. Leviticus 4. Numbers 5. Deuteronomy 6. Joshua 7. Judges 8. Ruth 9. Samuel 10. Kings 11. Chronicles 12. Ezra/Nehemiah/Esther 13. Job
    14. Psalms 15. Proverbs 16. Ecclesiastes 17. Song of Songs 18. Isaiah 19. Jeremiah/Lamentations 20. Ezekiel 21. Daniel 22. Amos to Malachi-Prophets

This Biblical Chronology provides a superstructure upon which to build our history on much more reliable sources than the testimony of contradictory historians, whose witness however, is valued in agreement with a Biblical Chronology. To return now to a chronology of the Greco-Persian wars;

In 499 BC, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, incited Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians. This opened an Ionian Revolt, that lasted until 493 BC, progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict.
Aristagoras got military support from Athens & Eretria, and in 498 BC these forces captured the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The Persian king Darius the Great vowed revenge on Athens and Eretria for this. His 492 BC Persian invasion of Greece, as Persian General Mardonius successfully re-subjugated  Thrace & Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of his campaign.[3]  Darius then began raising a huge new army with designs to subjugate Greece; but, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, delaying any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted preparations for a second invasion of Greece, that finally began in 480 BC.#23

In 480 BC, the Persian King led a large army across the Hellespont into Europe, winning military victories at Thermopylae & Artemisium before their defeat & razing of Athens. His forces got control of mainland Greece-north of the Corinthian Isthmus till they were defeated at the Battle of Salamis. Fearing the Greeks might trap him in Europe, Xerxes I retreated with a greater part of his army back to Asia, leaving behind Mardonius to continue his campaign.

Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500–475 BC, at the time of Darius I Metropolitan Museum of Art.#23a


 

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. Via Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx  after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains.

In 480 BC, following the Battle of Thermopylae, all of Boeotia fell to the Persian army. Thespiae and Plataea, the two Greek cities that resisted Darius I, were captured and subsequently razed, as a surviving Athenian population evacuated, by the Greek fleet, to Salamis. [1]

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most of the Athenians abandoned the city, fled to the island of Salamis before Xerxes‘ arrived. Xerxes I ordered the Destruction of Athens, leaving an archaeologically intact destruction layer, called “Persian debris.” 

The following Charts for Repeating-Matching Eclipse Tetrads in 2024 AD with 480 BC, show how our current Eclipse decade of 2024-2034 match the ancient Eclipses of Darius/Xerxes I, open in 480-479 BC. They also match the 3 Blood Moon Purim Eclipses to open the Purim Holiday for Israel in Persia under Queen Esther and Mordecai. Considering Darius I’/Xerxes military history aligned with this key eclipse period, we can gain a more complete image and impression not only of Modern Persia, reflected in today’s Iran, but also a spiritual perspective of the building of the Wall & Temple of Jerusalem, and perhaps even the Coming building of a Third Temple, that the Jewish Temple Institute stands ready to enact.    

Comparison Chart #1 of Repeating Eclipse Tetrads 2024 AD with 480 BC.#24
Eclipse Date AD Sun/Moon Eclipse Date BC
3/25/2024 AD Lunar 3/25/480 BC
4/08/2024 AD Total Solar 4/09/480 BC Total
9/18/2024 AD Lunar 9/18/480 BC
10/2/2024 AD Annular Solar 10/2/480 BC Annular

Battles of Salamis and Plataea

The Battle of Salamis (26-27th Sept. 480 BC) won by the Greek fleet, followed Xerses I setting up a winter camp in Thessaly. [The history of April 8th/ Sept. 18th/ Oct. 2nd, 480 BC, eclipses, is mirrored in Chart 1 above.]

The Persian active military campaign against the Greeks initiated a battle in Salamis, fought in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in Saronic Gulf near Athens, marked a high point of the 2nd Persian invasion of Greece, arguably the largest naval battle of the ancient world, marking a turning point in the invasion.[8]

According to Thucydides: Themistocles manifested a desire to visit the king of Persia (…) The storm caused the vessel to drift towards the Athenians camp who  then besieged Naxos (…) Guided by a Persian coast, then he penetrated into the interior of the country and sent to Artaxerxes, who had succeeded Xerxes, his father a letter (The Peloponnesian War I:98;137). Therefore, he reports the fall
of Naxos after the one of Skyros dated at the beginning of the archonship of Phaedo in –476BC, according to Plutarch.#24a This, meeting with Themistocles would have occurred soon after 475/474BC. Furthermore, Themistocles died under the archon of Praxiergos (in –471BC) according to Diodorus Siculus (Historical Library XI:54-60), and Herodotus situated the transfer of power from Darius to Xerxes at the time of the revolt of Egypt, four years after Marathon, or –486, #24b and the change Xerxes/Artaxerxes shortly after the storming of Eion [dated –476 BC], last event of  reign of Xerxes.#24c. Though heavily out-numbered the Greeks persuaded by Themistocles returning the Persian fleet to battle, hoping victory might prevent naval advance against the Peloponnese. The Persians were also eager for a decisive battle. So, the Persian navy rowed into the Straits of Salamis in an effort to block both entrances. But in the cramped waters, the great Persian numbers proved a detriment, as ships struggled to maneuver, becoming disorganized. To sieze the opportunity the Greek fleet formed in line to win a victory. The Naval battle as the Repeating-Matching Eclipses in Chart 1 above, reflects modern Iran’s attempt to control the oil traffic via straits of Hormuz, and loosing their entire Navy in the process.

The majority of the Persian army retreated to Asia, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year the remainder of the Persian army was defeated at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian navy at a Battle of Mycale. The Persian ships were then captured and burned. The complete destruction of the Persian navy, along with the destruction of Mardonius’ army at Plataea, decisively ended the invasion of Greece. After Plataea and Mycale, the Greeks went on the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of Greco-Persian Wars. The Persians made no further attempts to conquer Greece, as the battles of Salamis & Plataea marked a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian Wars. The Greco-Persian wars were a series of conflicts between Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states starting in 499 BC[i] and lasted until 449 BC. This near 50-year period of conflict reflects a near 50 years of conflict between US/Israeli’s vs. Iran today. The historical reflection of ancient and modern Iran pointed out above is mirrored by astronomical activity typical in these periods in ancient Persia and modern Iran, in Repeating Purim Blood Moon Eclipses. 

 The last time there was a set of Triple Lunar Eclipses on Purim, before the current triad of 2024-26; and 480 BC–2500 years ago, was from 1978-1980; as the radical Islamic revolution and terrorist regime in Iran first took power! It’s interesting that one Total Lunar Eclipse on 3/24/1978 and two Eclipses in 1979 & 3/1/80 match Purim dates 3/13/1979 with a 3/14/2025 Lunar Eclipse in  Chart #2 below with Summer Lunar Eclipse of 9/6/1979 with 9/7/2025 and 479 BC!  This serves to foreshadow the Purim events of 2024-2026! After a March 1979 Islamic Republic referendum, with 98% approval- a shift to an Islamic republic, the terrorist radical regime has been in power nearly 50 years.

Xerxes left a contingent in Greece to finish the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus suggested the retreat in the first place. This force was defeated in the next year-479 BC; [See March 14/29th-9/7 Eclipses in 479BC in Chart 2 below, the following year at Plataea by the Allied forces of Greek city-states, ended the Persian invasion of Greece for good.

Comparison Chart#2 for Repeating Eclipse Tetrads 2025 AD with 479 BC#25
Eclipse Date Eclipse type Sun/Moon Eclipse Date Saros#
3/14/2025 AD Partial Lunar 3/14/479 BC 34
3/29/2025 AD Total Solar 3/29/479 BC 60
9/07/2025 AD Partial Lunar 9/07/479 BC 39
9/21/2025 AD Annular Solar 9/21/479 BC 65

In Book 7.37, Herodotus describes the movements of the Persian forces as they gathered to invade Greece in 480 BC. The King wrote what follows: “At the start of its journey, the sun left its seat in the heavens, disappeared and although the sky had been especially clear and cloudless, day now eclipsed into night.”#26 Xerxes himself observing this, was concerned. He asked his Magi of the Zoroastrian’s-the portent’s import. They said “the god showed the Hellenes in advance and they left their cities, as the sun prophesied for the Hellenes, but for the Persians it was the moon.” This speaks to Purim’s 3 Blood Moon Lunar eclipses in a row, related to the import of their linked Soli–Lunar Eclipses in 480-478BC matched with today’s repeating eclipses in 2024-2026 AD, in context of the current US/Israeli war with Iran!

In addition, the only Solar Eclipses that fit Xerxes’ description in 480BC are the 4/09/480BC Total Solar and the 10/2/480BC Annular Solar Eclipses. In 479BC only the 3/29/479BC Total Solar and the 9/21/479BC Annular Solar Eclipses fit the bill of “day now eclipsing into night.” [see Chart #1 above]

The editors of the Landmark Edition of Herodotus provide a footnote here explaining that “this purported eclipse cannot be verified by astronomical calculations.”27 Historians have argued about this for centuries– in an article published in “The Observatory” in 1884, W.T. Lynn noted that the issue might be the dates given by Herodotus. While the article finds no Solar Eclipse evidence visible in Asia Minor/Anatolia in 480BC, it appears Solar Eclipses took place in 481 & 478 BC.”#28 However, the dates given here for both Lunar and Solar Eclipses obviously verified by NASA’s Five Millennium Canon of Eclipses and other modern resources, hold Eclipse records are proven to have happened in 480-478BC- the Repeating-Matching Eclipses renewed in [2024-2026 AD].#29
Based on scholarly & historical sources, we can confirm what was previously may not be visible; for unknown causes. These dates not only match Esther’s reign with Darius I/Xerxes as he readied his forces to attack Greece, but also draws unique reflection to our current decade of Repeating-Matched eclipses. Below the example is found cited above as “Xerxes’ Eclipse…“

Xerxes’ Eclipse– Note
“…while he was offering sacrifice to know if he should march out against the Greeks, the sun was suddenly darkened in mid-sky…“
– History, IX, 10, Herodotus  #30

The fact that Xerxes, while offering sacrifice to the monotheistic god Ahura–Mazda of the Persian–Zoroastrian Religion of the Biblical Magi, was able to consult the Magi in his Army on the meaning of this eclipse, is striking in light of their wisdom revealing Celestial signs of Christ’s birth with the Repeating signs circa 480-469 BC/2024-2034 AD. In 481 BC, as part of Xerxes 1‘ lead-up for the 2nd invasion of Greece in Greco-Persian Wars, the Xerxes Canal dug via an isthmus of Mount Athos peninsula, had provisions stored on Thracian road, & 2 pontoon bridges, later known as Xerxes‘ Pontoon Bridges were built across the Hellespont. This is noteworthy, as of the few monuments left by the Persian Empire in Europe.[1]

Histories of ancient Greek historian Herodotus, recounts the events of the Greco-Persian Wars, the Persian commander Mardonius, in 492 BC, lost a great part of his fleet, 300 ships & 720,000 men, in a storm going around the cliffs of the Athos peninsula, during the First Persian invasion of Greece.[2]

Xerxes, in preparation for the Second Persian invasion of Greece, in 483 BC had a channel built through the Athos isthmus in order to avoid falling prey to the similar disaster. According to other astronomical tablet notations BM 32234, Xerxes I’ death-  dated 14/V/21 between 2 Lunar Eclipses, one dated 14/III/21
6/25/475 BC, that was partial, and the 2nd dated 14/VIII/21 [12/20/475BC] was total, dates the death of Xerxes I-on 24 August 475 BC. [see Chart #3 below]

 Comparison Chart#3 for Repeating Eclipse Tetrads 2029 AD with 475 BC#30a

Eclipse Date Sources Saros Sun/Moon Eclipse Date Source Saros
1/14/29 AD T&D/Nasa 151 Partial Solar 1/14/475 BC    
4/13/2029 AD Apophis 99942 Asteroid flyby    
6/12/29 AD T&D/Nasa 118 Partial Solar 6/12/475 BC    
6/25-6/29 AD T&D/Nasa 130 Partial Lunar 6/26/475 BC LBAT 51
7/11/29 AD T&D/Nasa 156 Partial Solar 7/11/475 BC    
12/6/29 AD T&D/Nasa 123 Partial Solar 12/6/475 BC    
12/20/29 AD T&D/Nasa 135 Total Lunar 12/20/475 BC LBAT 56

Haman’s intended Genocide for the Jews is mirrored in today’s modern Iran. As Haman intended Genocide for the Jews, so modern Hamas terrorists show a similar hatred for Israel, seen in their October 7th atrocities. We also find a reflection of the reversal that Haman brought on himself, being hung with his 10 sons on the very gallows he made to hang Mordecai! [Est. 8:1-8]. In the Iran of today– Ayatollah Ali Khameni and his 10 top leaders met their final ruin on Saturday–Feb. 28th, “Sabbath of Remembrance“-3 days before a 3rd [2024-2026] Blood Moon Purim Eclipse 3/3/2026–in a row, on the Jews annual victory bash recalling Haman’s demise! As we consider this Purim Eclipse culminated at maximum on 3/3/2026 @ 3:33am (PST), we note many Bible references to the number “3” linking God’s descent in a cloud, (Ex. 19:9–11; John 2:1; weddings, and 1 Cor. 15:4 with resurrection, all of which denote “spiritual completion,” as a spiritual symbol for the number 3. #31 

Part of the Purim celebration includes a Torah Reading in Jewish Synagouges of Haman being blotted out, [1 Sam. 15:2 -3] as Khameni and his leaders, were bombed out by Israeli/US forces. Iran has been busy developing the Nuclear bomb to bring “death to America and Israel” for decades, but were themselves Bombed into submission on this day! As Haman & his Sons had their gallows, so Khamanei & his sons got their bomb. As Haman rose so many generations after Amalek’s fall, so Khamanei pursued so many generations after Haman, but our Lord recalls the ancient battle vs. the seed of evil, [Gen. 3:15] as the Almighty wrote it in the Sun, Moon & Stars in Repeating-Matching Eclipses of our day in the current Purim Lunar Eclipses!

The February 28th –“Sabbath of Remembrance“ recalls Exod. 17:8-16 Amalek in a battle with Israel at Rephidim. In 1 Samuel 15:2 the Lord recalls Amalek and his actions against Israel, how he laid wait for him in the way [#1870] as Israel came up from Egypt. It’s no coincidence that Ali Khameni met a demise on this Sabbath of Remembrance, so near the 3/3/26-3rd Purim Blood Moon in a row! This aligns with God’s Promise in Ex. 17:14 below that; “I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.”

Ali Khameni-as a notorious ruler since 1989, having recently massacred 40K+ of his own Iranian people, while sponsoring the likes of Hamas and terrorist proxies, Hezzbollah with other Palestinian groups vs. the US and Israel. Not only do we find the link to a Sabbath of Remembrance, but we too find dates Matched- to Repeating 3/3/478 BC Purim Lunar Eclipses, on the same March 3rd date with another Lunar Eclipse in 478BC, during Esther’s reign with Ahaseraus/& Mordecai! The Purim feast is a permanent yearly notice and celebration of Israel’s victory and Freedom from Haman’s Genocide, evident in history. It’s also a main reason for these Repeating, Matching dates seen in current events of 3/3/2026 Purim Lunar Eclipse, with the signs of Repeating-Matched dates of a decade of Luni-Solar Eclipses from 480-478BC to 469 BC.

Exodus 17:14-16 14 Then the Lord said to Moses, “Write this for a memorial; [#2146-to pierce, invoke in memory]#32 in the book and recount it in hearing
of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.” 15 And Moses built an altar and called its name, [f]The-Lord-Is-My-Banner; 16 for he said, “Because the Lord has sworn: the Lord will have war with Amalek from generation to generation.”

The generations of Amalek from Agag and Esau in 1 Samuel 15:2-3, we find Haman the son of Hammedatha the Agagite, [Est. 3:1], shows a priority in God’s Mind concerning Israel’s generational enemies, with a low ranking of Amalek’s seed, so “the Lord desired war with Amalek.” As God looks on the heart of Men, there can be no better Judge of mankind than Almighty God. [Est. 3:1], shows Haman in Hebrew; (the Agagite) is named pouyaooq, but ‘Agagite‘ means descendent of Agag, king of the Agagites, first, for the Jewish readers of Esther, evidenced by Josephus, in the Talmud and the Targums, took Agagite as implacable enemies of Israel, that they proved to be. Lewy found in Esther 3:6 a verse where Haman’s plot to destroy Mordecai and all Jews in the kingdom of Ahasuerus, the genocide of “the people of Mordecai.” Thus Greek translators of Esther modernized an old term “Agagite“ into pouyaooq, as a meaningful form for Greek speaking Jews. #33 

The Book of Esther is set in the reign of Darius/Xerxes as heavily committed to Zoroastrianism of an orthodox variety. There was a temple of Ishtar and certainly worshippers of Marduk in Susa at this time. We agree the religious persecution referred to in the Book of Esther originally was not Persians vs.  Jews, but only Haman’s Agagite hatred of the Jews, as they lay in wait for Israel coming out of Egypt, in Exodus 17.

Thus, We have not yet heard the end of God’s Judgment on Agag!

In Elephantine Papyri, and inscriptions from Persepolis, devotees of Ahura-Mazda are referred to as “worshippers of Mazda.” This logic seems to fail as for the Zoroastrian Magi “Ahura-Mazda” was a monotheistic God like that of Hebrew Jehovah, not like the idolatrous Mithraic gods or Egyptian trinities, many times seen as Sol/Ra; the Sun-god, Luna-mistress of the Moon, & Saturn, who-often is seen passing a dagger or short sword to Mithras, in ancient icon-ography of Bull sacrifice.

It also occurs in the Treasury Tablets in Persepolis;

17 Although many biblical critics and scholars from antiquity argued that Esther and Mordecai are merely theophoros names and represent secular names, much as Jews in Daniel 1:6-7 had Jewish and Babylonian names [see Moore, op. cit., 19],#34 the collocation of the names Esther and Mordecai, the names of a Babylonian god and goddess, [Marduk & Ishtar] as close cousins and skewed images in the Babylonian pantheon myths, even as Esther and Mordecai were cousins in their family at Persian Court.

In summary, I find the history of the Greco-Persian Wars a fascinating aspect of both a Historical and Astronomical record, as they relate to Bible History. The times of ancient Persia and Greece represent a key period of prophecy in the Book of Daniel, related to Nebuchadrezzar’s Dream Statue and the kingdoms of history. Even more, an overlap of this period with Repeating-Matching Eclipses of 480-469BC as they match with our current decade, speaks volumes in light of current events, prophecy and ancient history. I invite all comments and feed-back as these topics are open for discussion on my Biblical Astronomy Fellowship page in the Facebook forum.

God Bless!

Rene’

 

Footnotes

1. E.W. Bullinger’s Companion Bible for Ezra 4:1-6:22, p. 623.
2. Ren Manetti’s Notes on Ahasuerus & Artaxerxes–OT History Class.
2a. “Post-exilic Bible Chronology that Identifies Esther’s Husband.” J. Nessle
2b. https://www.biblechronologytimeline.com/biblechronologytimeline5b.html
2c. https://biblestudentarchives.com/documents/Artaxerxes20thYear.pdf
3. Herodotus, Histories 3.91.
3a. E.W. Bullinger’s Companion Bible for Ezra 6:15-22.
3b. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Iran
4. Ren Manetti’s Notes on Dan. 11:1-19 from OT History Class.
5. Ren Manetti’s Notes on Dan. 11:2 from OT History Class.
6. E.W. Bullinger’s Companion Bible, App. 57 ppg. 80-81.
7. Analysis of the Prophecies of Daniel at the Hope “Mini-Summit” in Tampa, Fl, Rev. Jon Nessle
7b. Plutarch (Life of Theseus §§35,36)
8. Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I, in NABU 2020-4, pp. 273-279. By Gerard GERTOUX
9. https://biblestudentarchives.com/documents/Artaxerxes20thYear.pdf
9a. https://www.academia.edu/2421036/Dating_the_reigns_of_Xerxes_and_Artaxerxes
10. Analysis of the Prophecies of Daniel at The Hope “Mini-Summit” in Tampa, Fl, Rev. Jon Nessle
11. IBID
11a. https://biblestudentarchives.com/documents/Artaxerxes20thYear.pdf
11b. IBID
12. Christology of the Old Testament; 1999 printing, p. 197 Ernst Hengstenberg
12a. Fig. 1 picture credit, [https://www.thecollector.com/fascinating-facts-from-the-bas-reliefs-of-persepolis/]
12b. Cyrus Cylinder
12c. Ibid
13. A bas relief from Persepolis, in the Insight Book Vol II page 615 entitled “Evidence from Persian sources“ in the Archaeological Museum of Tehran.
13a. Tablet BM 65494 dated 4/V1/50 of Artaxerxes I –Stolper
14. Akkadian numerical system shows how to wrote the #50, that exact match.[https://www.academia.edu/99055324/_King_Artaxerxes_475_BCE_or_465_BCE_ And_the_seventy_weeks_of_years_]
15. “Annals of the World,” by Archbishop James Usher book published 1650 AD.
16. Horn and Wood, op. cit., pp. 14-16, 20; Thiele, 09. cit., pp. 28-31.
17. J. N. Strassmaier in reports in ZA, VII [~Sgz], zoo, 201; VIII [1893], 106).
18. Babylonian chronology based on tablet BM 34576 (King List dated 99 BC)
19. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312069819_Dating_the_reigns_of_Xerxes_and_Artaxerxes] Data of Diodorus confirm a Co-regency of 10 years with Darius (522-486), with Elephantine papyri.
20. King’s List from the tablet BM 34576 (copy dated 99 BC).
21. [see V. Ryssel, Zusdtzen zum Buch Esther (Tiibingen 1900) and L. B. Paton, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther, (New York I908) 51-54].
22. A. Ungnad, Keilin-schriftliche Beitrage zum Buch Esra und Ester,” ZAW 58 (I940-4I) 240-244 and addenda in ZA W 59 (1942-43).
22a. https://jcalebjones.com/2021/09/07/the-complete-chronology-of-ezra-nehemiah-and-esther-fully-explained/
22b. IBID
22c. IBID
22d. IBID
22e. IBID
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great
23. Impression from a cylinder seal, sculpted c. 500–475 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art
24. Comparison Chart #1 of Repeating Eclipse Tetrads 2024 AD with 480 BC.
24a. [Life of Theseus §§35,36]
24b. [Diodorus Siculus’ Historical Library XI:54-60]
24c. Herodotus [The Histories VII :106-107]
25. Comparison Chart#2 for Repeating Eclipse Tetrads 2025 AD with 479 BC
26. Xerxes’ Eclipse, Book 7.37, Herodotus History, IX, 10,
27. Landmark Edition of Herodotus provide a footnote
28. The Observatory” in 1884, W.T. Lynn noted the dates given by Herodotus, as the article finds no Solar Eclipse evidence visible in Asia Minor/Anatolia in 480BC, it appears Solar Eclipses took place in 481 & 478 BC
29. NASA’s Five Millennium Canon of Eclipses, Time and date.com
30. [https://www.eclipsewise.com/extra/SEhistory.html#-479BC]
30a. NASA’s Five Millennium Canon of Eclipses, Timeanddate.com.
31. Number in Scripture, E. W. Bullinger on #3, ppg 107-122.
32. Strong’s Concordance [#2146-to pierce, invoke in memory] Ex. 17:14-16.
33. GG. Cameron, The Persepolis Treasury Tablets (Chicago 1948) 85; A. Ungnad, Keilinschriftliche Beitrage zum Buch Esra und Ester,” ZAW 58 (I940-4I) 240-244 and addenda in ZA W 59 (1942-43) 219. 16 Lewy, op. cit., 128 n. 14.
34. IBID, Moore, op. cit., 19
35. Certain Historical sections of this study were taken from Wikipedia where the links remain active for reference.

A History of Passover and Easter.

A History of Passover and Easter.

Welcome to the April 2026 Blog folks! In this Spring Season when Nature is bursting forth with signs of Life at every turn, we remain always aware and cognizant of our Loving Creator and Heavenly Father, as the Source of Life in all its manifestations. So it is with thankful hearts, we recognize the Father of Life and Light with His only Begotten Son Jesus Christ, as Author & Agent of all Blessings to mankind. Through his sinless blood as the Passover Lamb, as we look to the first full Moon following the Spring Equinox each year, as a time thought to mark this Spring Feast, but is it truly as Exodus 12 tells us,  according to the standard of God’s everlasting ordinance? This is a focus of the topic of this month’s blog study. How did the God’s Passover commands morph into Easter?

Ex. 12:12-14 ‘For I will pass through the land of Egypt on that night, and will strike all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgment: I am the Lord. 13 Now the blood shall be a sign for you on the houses where you are. And when I see the blood, I will pass over you; and the plague shall not be on you to destroy you when I strike the land of Egypt. 14 ‘So this day shall be to you a memorial; [#2146] and you will keep it as a feast to the Lord throughout your generations. You shall keep it as a feast by an everlasting ordinance.

Just as the blood of the sacrificed Passover Lamb saved the inhabitants of the Jewish dwellings in ancient Egypt, from the angel of Death, so the Blood of Jesus Christ our Passover protects us today from our sinful nature that is the death of all– without Christ. His perfect sinless blood was the only righteous sacrifice that could ever cover for our sin, as the rest of mankind all shares in the sinful blood of the 1st Adam, coursing through our veins. It’s key to note that Almighty God commanded that the Passover on Nisan 14 was to be a Memorial- kept as a Feast to the Lord throughout Israel’s Generations, as    an everlasting Ordinance, without exception.

In this way, the life & ministry of the Messiah Jesus Christ embodies pictures of future redemptive truths seen in the Sacred Feasts of Judaism. The First Coming of Jesus fulfilled 3 of these Feasts, as his Second Coming fulfils the remaining four. This aligning of the Hebrew Feasts of God with the 1st & 2nd Advents of Jesus Christ, depicts a unified Biblical Calendar recognizing Jesus’ sacrificial crucifixion aligned with Passover.

Figure 1. Feasts of the Hebrew Calendar

This record in Exodus 12 reveals more details of the Passover Lamb for Israel;

Ex. 12:2 “This month shall be your beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year to you. 3 Speak to all the congregation of Israel, saying: ‘On the tenth of this month every man shall take for himself a lamb, according to the house of his father, a lamb for a household.

Verse 3 tells us the Passover Lamb was selected on the 10th day of the month, followed on the 14th, when the families of Israel killed their Passover Lamb. The two aspects of the Passover Lamb-its flesh for healing health, and Blood for Salvation/Atonement we find today in Communion, [Levi. 17:11, Heb. 9:23].

This Passover Feast recalls the final plague before Israel was released from Egyptian Bondage, as the death angel “passed over” the nation of Israel who applied the blood of the Lamb to their doors. The Israelites dipped bundles of Hyssop into the blood in the basin at the threshold of their doors’ entrance, and going up they applied it to their lintels, touching both sides of the door-frames, [Ex. 12]. A deeper look at this imagery shows the form applied in this process makes the shape of a Cross, exhibiting God’s intention to align Jesus’ crucifixion with Passover, opening Wednesday- Nisan 14th established by God on the Hebrew Calendar, agreeing with Messianic prophecies in Amos 8:8-10. Reflected in the image of this 10th and final plague on Egypt, was the truth in the Lord’s Passover that “He would smite all the firstborn in Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt, the Lord executed judgment: I am the Lord.” The Hebrew noun “pesach’“ 1st usage [Ex. 12:11-12] refers to “the Lord’s Passover” or killing the Passover Lamb, applying Lamb’s blood to the doorposts, and eating the Passover Meal, [Lk. 22:8-13] These are 3 different Biblical usages of “Passover,” with a 4th referring to the entire 7-day Feast of Unleavened Bread, [Lk. 22:1]. #1 

The image of the firstborn in Egypt, both man and beast, [Heb. 11:28, 12:23] is mirrored in the truth that Almighty God and our Heavenly Father, gave His only begotten Firstborn Son Jesus Christ, who gave himself for all mankind on Passover–to embody the Spiritual First-Fruits of a truly abundant harvest of souls, foreshadowed in the Feast of Firstfruits; [Ex. 23:16-19, Levi. 23:9-10, 17-20, Num. 18:15, Deut. 26:1-10, Neh. 10:35-37, 12:44, Prov. 3:9, Ezek. 44: 30, Ex. 4:23, Mt. 1:25, Acts 26:23, Romans 6:9-11, 8:29, 1Cor. 15:20-23–prototoktos]#2

Jesus Christ fulfilled this when John the Baptist-seeing him, said Look! The “Lamb of God“ who takes away the sin of the world, [Jn. 1:29]. Jesus’ perfect Passover Sacrifice on April 28th, 28AD paid it all for us, rescuing us from spiritual death! This unity of the Calendars of Judaism and Christianty was  however wrongfully divided by the Roman Catholics in the 1st Council of Nicea in 325 AD.

Ex. 12:5 5 Your lamb shall be without[a] blemish, a male [b]of the first year.

There are important clues in this verse that are glossed over by most of the Christian world. This verse describes the qualifications of the Passover Lamb, being a Lamb of the First Year. Jesus-a Judean Rabbi, had to be at least 30 years old before he could begin his ministry to Israel. With his birth on 9/11/3 BC, it means 30 years later puts us in 27 AD. As God’s Chosen Passover Lamb, a Lamb in his first year means that the length of his ministry to Israel did not exceed 2 years before the sacrifice of the Lamb could occur! Thus, the freedom that Christ brought to the Jews in Passover is evident in the freedom Christian’s share in the New Birth. 

 This automatically eliminates all the many who maintain that Jesus’ ministry to Israel lasted 3 years! It means too-the record in John 1:26-34 as John, seeing Jesus- identified him as the “Lamb of God” in v. 29, occurred Winter-Spring of 27 AD, meaning the events of Jesus’ ministry occured in Spring 27AD toward the balance of 28 AD. As the Ministry of the Lamb of God–a Lamb of the first year, technically extends till before the end of the 2nd year, covering 27-28 AD. History tells the 15th year of Tiberius aligned with 27 AD as Tiberius Caesar, the Emperor during Christ’s lifetime, appears to have believed in Christ-as Lord, and that Pilate also became a Christian as well. [Lk. 3:1-3] #3

After Jesus conquered the Temptations of the Devil in the wilderness, he went to his home-town Nazareth to teach in it’s synagogue, where he read from the scroll of [Isa. 61:1-2, 63:1-4]. In Luke 4:16-19; “Jesus preached the Gospel to the poor, deliverance to the captives, healed the broken-hearted, and recovering sight to the blind, set them at liberty them who are bruised. To Preach the Acceptable Year of the Lord.”

This word “Acceptable“ in Greek is [#1184-dektos-a form of Dechomai-#1209 is not only a subjective decision but a favorable acceptance of God’s will, and divine approval.] The Acceptable Year is a time of God’s approval and His Choosing, [2 Cor. 6:2]. This word repeats again in Luke 4:24; “No prophet is accepted in [#1184] his own country.”#4 This was a prophetic reference not only of Christ and his Gospel of deliverance and liberty, but also the Jew’s rejection of his kingdom. It’s ironic that Jesus’ first declares his ministry to his “hometown“ crowd, in Nazareth–the people most familiar with him and his family, foreshadows also Christ’s rejection by the Jew’s religious leaders.

In the Spring of the year the 1st month-called Abib, on the Jew’s Calendar was known as Nisan after the Babylonian Captivity. We find evidence of this in the book of Esther below.

Esther 3:5-7 5 When Haman saw that Mordecai did not bow or pay him homage, Haman was filled with wrath. 6 But he disdained to lay hands on Mordecai alone, for they had told him of the people of Mordecai. Instead, Haman sought to destroy all Jews who were throughout the whole kingdom of Ahasuerus—the people of Mordecai. 7 In the first month, which is the month of Nisan, in the twelfth year of King Ahasuerus, they cast Pur (that is, the lot), before Haman to determine the day and the [b]month, [c]until it fell on the twelfth month, which is the month of Adar.

“Casting Pur“ in verse 7, is not a Hebrew word but refers to “casting of lots” a practice of the “monthly prognosticator’s, enchantments & sorceries engaged in by astrologers & star-gazer’s,” employed by Haman whose prophesied end seen in Isa. 47:9-13, is found with those who practice these “black arts.” “Pur” is likely from the Assyrian “puru“-as a pebble in casting lots. #5 

In current events today we find a very similar picture to what happened in ancient Persia, as Haman’s Genocide of the Jews is mirrored in modern Iran. As Haman intended Genocide for the Jews, so modern terrorists like Hamas have shown similar hatred for the Jews, seen in their October 7th atrocities. We can also see a reflection of the reversal that Haman brought on himself, being hung with his 10 sons on the very gallows he built to hang Mordecai! [Est. 8:1-8]. In today’s Iran-the Ayatollah Ali Khameni and his top leadership met their final ruin on a Saturday–Feb. 28th, a “Sabbath of Remembrance“-3 days before a 3rd [2024-2026] Purim Blood Moon 3/3/2026-in a row on the Jews annual victory bash for Haman’s demise! Part of this celebration included a Torah Reading in Jewish Synagouges of Haman being blotted out, [1Sam. 15:2 -3] as Ali Khameni & his leaders were bombed by Israeli/US forces. Iran has been developing a Nuclear bomb to bring “death to America and Israel” for decades, but were themselves bombed into submission! Like Haman and his Sons had the gallows, so Khamanei and his sons got their bomb. Like Haman rose many generations after the fall of Amalek, so Khamanei followed many generations after Haman, but our Lord recalls the ancient battle vs. the seed of evil, [Gen. 3:15] as the Almighty wrote it in the stars in Repeating-matched in our day in current Purim Lunar Eclipses!

The Feb. 28th Saturday–“Sabbath of Remembrance“ recalls Exod. 17:8-16 as Amalek fought with Israel at Rephidim. In 1 Samuel 15:2 the Lord remembered what Amalek did to Israel, how he laid wait for him in the way [#1870] when he came up from Egypt. It is no coincidence that Ali Khameni met his demise on this Sabbath of Remembrance, so near a 3rd Purim Blood Moon in a row! This aligns with God’s Promise in Ex. 17:14 below that; “I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.”

Ali Khameni-as a notorious ruler since 1989, having recently massacred 35-40K of his own Iranian people, while sponsoring the likes of terrorist proxies Hamas, Hezzbollah & other Palestinian groups vs. the US and Israel. Not only do we find the link to a Sabbath of Remembrance, but we also find Matched-Repeating dates of the 3/3/2026 Purim Lunar Eclipse, back to the same March 3rd date with another Lunar Eclipse in 478BC, during Esther’s actual reign as Queen with Ahaseraus and Mordecai! The Purim feast is a permanent yearly notice and celebration of Israel’s victory & freedom from Haman’s intended Genocide, evident throughout history. It is also the reason for these Repeating, Matching dates found in current events of 3/3/2026 Purim Lunar Eclipse, with the signs of Repeating-Matched dates of Luni-Solar Eclipses from 480-478BC to 469BC.

Exodus 17:14-16 14 Then the Lord said to Moses, “Write this for a memorial; [#2146-to pierce, invoke in memory]#6 in the book and recount it in hearing
of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven.” 15 And Moses built an altar and called its name, [f]The-Lord-Is-My-Banner; 16 for he said, “Because the Lord has sworn: the Lord will have war with Amalek from generation to generation.”

In the seed and generations of Amalek from Agag in 1 Samuel 15:2-3 we find Haman the son of Hammedatha the Agagite, [Est. 3:1]. This shows a priority in the mind of God concerning the generational enemies of Israel, with the high ranking of Amalek’s seed, as “the Lord desired to war with Amalek.” As God looks on the heart of Men, there is no better righteous Judge of man than the Almighty God.

As Moses stood atop of a hill where he could see Amalek’s armies below him. He held to the “rod of God”—the same rod with which he had raised to part the Red Sea for Israel’s crossing, and with he struck the rock to bring water for Israel in the desert (Exodus 17:5–6).

This battle was unusual: “As long as Moses raised his hands, Israel prevailed, but when he lowered his hands, with the rod of God the Amalekites prevailed (Ex. 17: 11). As Moses’ arms grew weary, they had to be supported by his brother, Aaron, and a man named Hur. At sunset, Israel defeated the Amalekites (Ex. 17:12–13). After the battle, Moses built an altar and named it Jehovah-Nissi, “the Lord is my banner.”

The unique manner of this conquest, left no doubt as to who was responsible for the victory. Only as the rod of God was held aloft did the Israelites prevail. The battle was not won by military might or superior battle plans; it was won by the power of God. “The battle is the Lord’s” (1 Samuel 17:47).

The hands and rod of Moses were held up in the same way that soldiers hold up their flags in the time of battle. As these flags bear the insignia of their country, the soldiers are said to fight under that banner. The Israelites fought under the direction of God, Jehovah-Nissi. It was under the Lord’s banner and with His aid they fought, and in His name and strength they conquered.

The lesson that, as Moses held up the rod of God, he was praying for the success of the Israelite troops below him. Moses’ lifting up of the rod can thus be seen as a picture of intercessory prayer. “The prayer of a righteous person is powerful and effective” (James 5:16). Moses’ weariness, evidenced by the lowering of his hands, illustrates a truth that “the spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak,” (Mark 14:38). The naming of the altar Jehovah-Nissi is a reminder to believers of every era that we are always victorious as we honor the name of the Lord and rally to Him as our Banner. If God be for us ,Who can be against us?

An added purpose in this blog study is to utilize written historical references to show that the Church Jesus set up, observed the biblical Passover on the 14th of Aviv/ Nisan for the first 200 years of its existence. And only after significant political pressure, many Christian Churches changed the date of observance to what is now called “Easter Sunday.” I’m blessed to say that our church is not included among those who made this change, against God’s Command. [Ex. 12: 12-14.]

If the apostle Paul taught against the observance of biblical holy days as many falsely proclaim, then why was the church still observing holy days 2 centuries after his death? The historical record shows the very congregations he set up in Asia Minor, were holding to a Biblical Passover 200 years later, that they kept on the 14th of Aviv/Nisan just as recorded in the book of Exodus and Leviticus 23:5.

Early post-Apostolic Observance of the Passover #7

Those that favored abandoning the observance of Passover according to Biblical standards tell us the history of life in the early church is foggy…”and since our view of how Passover was observed in the Church of the Apostles is unclear we are free to rewrite history and improvise our own traditions.” This is a falsehood of a highest order, since God’s Word provides us the clearest images of how and where the New Covenant records are preserved. Every year there are Church fellowships on the 14th of Nisan that conduct ceremonies as Christ taught his disciples where a Passover Lamb was replaced by Communion’ Bread & Wine [John 13:3-15]… [Matthew 26:26-29]… together we read Jesus’ encouraging words to the disciples on that night [John 14:1 – 17:26]…we sing     a hymn together and we conclude, our Communion service [Matthew 26:30].

1Cor. 5:6-8 6 Your glorying is not good. Do you not know that a little leaven leavens the whole lump? 7 Therefore [d]purge out the old leaven, that you may be a new lump, since you truly are unleavened. For indeed Christ, our Passover, was sacrificed [e]for us. 8 Therefore let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, nor with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.

The New Testament Passover is not based on Jewish tradition, or Old Covenant practice, except the date of observance, which is the 14th day of the month of Aviv/Nissan. Jesus himself replaced the sacrificed lamb with the bread and wine. Jesus instructs us in 28 AD till today, that Passover was a memorial of Jesus’ death and our deliverance from sin rather than Israel’s deliverance from Egypt. He said;

“this is my body given for you, do this in remembrance of me“…”this cup is the  blood of the new covenant which is poured out for you“…”poured out for the many, for the forgiveness of sin“.

This is summarized in 1 Cor. 11:23-26 as Churches of God hold New Covenant Passover services according to a pattern given by Jesus Christ, passed down to us via the apostles, and to the Church of God into the present day.

The Scriptural records document the followers of Christ still observed and referred to “the Passover“ on Nisan 14.  Their recalling of the memorial of Jesus’ death honors this sacrifice, rather than Israel’s Exodus from Egypt. Those remaining faithful to the Biblical standards from the Apostles are on good and solid ground, while others influenced mostly by the Roman Catholic Church, veered into new practices linked to Easter, based on heretical practices
of their own presumed authority. This divisive practice generated controversy. 

The 1st Historic References to the Controversy

A writer named Irenaus who lived during the decades after the last of the apostles reports on a meeting that took place in 154 AD, between two church leaders: Polycarp and Anicetus. Polycarp was bishop of Sardis representing the eastern congregations, while Anicetus was bishop of Rome in the west.

During that meeting Anicetus tried to persuade Polycarp to stop observing the Passover according to the practice of the apostle John, while Polycarp worked to persuade Anicetus to stick with the Passover. Since part of the Church kept the Passover while others did not, a doctrinal schism was exposed. Churches in the east, set up and taught by the Apostle Paul, rejected Rome’s efforts to alter times and practices. Due to a rise of Antisemitism, based on Jews themselves who were stirring up trouble and unrest in the empire that was used to respond by rejecting the Passover, that began to sweep across the Roman Empire.

In 70 AD. while some of the apostles were still on the scene, Jerusalem was sacked and destroyed by Roman troops because of Jewish rebellion against the empire. The Church of God had fled to nearby Pella as destruction came. but after decades passed Christians drifted back to Jerusalem once again.

About 62 years later the Jews tried again to overthrow the Roman rule. The Bar Kokhba Revolt of AD. 132 – 135 was forcefully put down by Rome. Because of the revolt the emperor Hadrian put measures into place to try and stamp out Jewish influence for good.

  1. Hadrian built a brand new Roman style city called Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem
  2. Hadrian instituted laws that prohibited the practise of the Jewish religion
  3. Hadrian specifically targeted the Jewish festivals [which are God’s feasts] presumably to remove any excuse for the Jews to gather in large numbers and instigate riots and revolts.
  4. Hadrian expelled the Jews (therefore including the Jewish Christians) from His new city Aelia Capitolina. After ethnic Jewish leaders of the influential Jerusalem church were gone, they were replaced with Gentile members and leaders.

This set a stage for major change and serious controversy about observance of the Passover. A Palestinian historian Epiphanius wrote a report about the Quarto-deciman controversy in the late 300’s AD:

“The controversy arose after the exodus of the bishops of the circumcision in A.D. 135 and it has continued until our time.” He goes on to say that the 15 Jerusalem bishops had held fast to the date of the 14th of Nisan in keeping with the Apostolic Constitutions where the following rule was given; “you shall not change the calculation of the time but you shall celebrate it as the same time as your brethren who came out of the circumcision. With them you shall celebrate the Passover.”

Once a removal of Christian bishops with a Jewish background occured the Passover controversy rose up. Epiphanius also speculated that the new Gentile leaders changed the date to separate & differentiate Christian churches from the Jews… as the Jews came under attack from the Roman government. Soon after the changes initiated by Hadrian in Jerusalem, other Gentile Christian churches began to adopt the Sunday after Nisan 14 as the  Passover date. The congregations in Rome were early adopters of this new standard.

In Scripture, Paul dealt with Jewish legalism in Galatians and Gentile philosophy in Colossians. So, these differing approaches existed beneath the surface even in the 1st century congregations. Later, as Gentile Christians came to dominate the leadership of Church congregations…The Anti-semitism of Hadrian made anything that seemed Jewish undesirable. With the passage of time, Gentile Christians lead a church increasingly anti-semitic, as the two primary topics of this strife became the Sabbath and the holy days, the two prominent practices that were prioritzed by the Jews. Contrary to the Roman Cathholic positions, the Bible held the Sabbath and Holy days/God’s Feasts as basic Scriptural tenets. [Ex. 12:12-14]

The Council of Nicea 325 AD. #8

The Quarto-deciman controversy continued on, after men like Polycarp and Polycrates had tried to hold the line. Then after 200 years the debate over the  observance of Passover was settled by an agreement hammered out between the Roman Emperor Constantine and the Bishops of the Roman Church.

This debate intensified during the Second Century, historically known as the Quartodeciman controversy. “Quartodeciman” is simply a Latin term meaning “fourteenth.” What the 2nd century ecclesiastical record reveals is there was a controversy over the fourteenth— specifically, it concerned the change from the fourteenth of Nisan (Passover) to Easter, with all its pagan associations & links with typologies of fertility and fecundity. This was openly contested and rejected by congregations of the Asiatic East. It came to a head when Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna (who was personally taught by John the apostle), faced off with Anicetus, the preeminent bishop of Rome, in about 95 AD.

The Anti-Semitic influence in this part of the resolution is obvious: it appears an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this Most Holy Feast we should follow Jewish practices, who impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are therefore deserving to be afflicted with blindness of soul… let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd: for we have received from our Savior a different way. Strive and pray continually that the purity of your soul may not seem in anything to be sullied by fellowship with the custom of these most wicked men… All should unite in desiring that which sound reason appears to demand, avoiding all participation in the perjured conduct of the Jews.

Furthermore, to ensure the new Passover never coincided with the Jewish Passover, the Nicean Council decreed that if the 14th of Nisan ever fell on a Sunday, their celebration would be celebrated the following Sunday. In effect, this was how the biblical Passover was suppressed and world ended up with what is now called Easter… a humanly devised tradition. A disagreement that  was not settled by an appeal to Scripture, or an appeal to Apostolic Practice or Teaching… but settled politically in this Roman Catholic Church Council.

The celebration called Easter wore on; changed according to human tradition. Not only was it given a new date, and given new meaning, becoming a Spring Festival filled with fertility symbols reinterpreted as symbols of resurrection, along with elements of sun worship twisted into stories of light triumphing over darkness. This degradation of Passover from an annual Biblical Feast to abide by Godly Commandments, deteriorated to a religious dogma decided by Constantine and the Roman Catholic Bishops, which eventually changed the 
name to Easter near 200 years after the Council, in honor of a Spring goddess Eoster/Astarte… as Baal’s consort a thinly veiled version of Ishtar. The entire pagan concoction was merely an expression of the Babylon Mystery Religion.

“For I received of the Lord Jesus the same night in which he was betrayed [not Easter Sunday!] took bread” (1 Corinthians 11:23). Keep in mind Jesus Christ was betrayed during the night of Nisan 14 (Luke 22:15-22), that was thought the evening portion of the day of Passover (Exodus 12:6-13). Remember, God begins a new day at evening,  commencing at sunset (Genesis 1:5). With this established fact, how then was it changed from the 14th of Nisan (Passover) to Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox, and then assigned the pagan name Easter; (Ishtarte)?

Unquestionably, this was no minor change from the original observance that Jesus Christ exemplified (especially since people died refusing to obey this change). And furthermore, to supersede the authority of Jesus’ own example, is obviously presumptuous at best; and at worst, it is outright heretical! How can such a blatant act of contradiction and disregard for our Lord’s example and commands be allowed to take place? 

Notice what history tells us from the Roman Catholic Church itself, concerning this second century controversy: “The dioceses of all Asia, as from the older tradition [Passover], held that the fourteenth day of the moon, on which day the Jews were commanded to sacrifice the lamb, should always be observed as the feast of the life-giving Pesach-Passover]… However, it was not a custom of the churches in the rest of the world [primarily the West, expressed by Rome] to end it at this point [a non-biblical based fast ending Easter Sunday], as they observed the practice, which from apostolic pracitice has prevailed to present time… Synods and assemblies of bishops [not Jesus Christ’s example or the Gospel records!] were held on this account and all with one consent through mutual correspondence drew up an ecclesiastical decree [ignoring Christ’s personal example as recorded in the Gospels] that the mystery of the Lord’s resurrection should be celebrated on no other day but, the Sunday [Easter] and that we should observe the close of the paschal fast on that day only. A letter of Saint Irenaeus is among extracts just referred to, says Polycarp who [bishop of Smyrna], like the other Asiatics, kept Easter the fourteenth day of the moon [the real Passover], whatever day of the week that might be, after  the practice of [Polycarp] said to have derived from St. John the Apostle, was not swayed by Pope Anicetus to give up his Quartodecimen observance. The debated question was primarily whether Easter was to be kept on a Sunday, or whether Christians should observe the holy day of the Jews… #9

Clearly, this historical record from the Catholic Church proves that they themselves (not Jesus Christ) chose to exercise authority to sever the link with Passover. Undoubtedly, there was a long-term agenda to undermine and shift any and all associations connecting Jewish underpinnings that were foundational to the early Christian Church. This included doctrine of the Trinity, that was not introduced till the same Council of Nicea in 325 AD, based on the same political basis of negotiation amongst Synod’s and Bishop’s, with Constantine. Why is it that the word “Trinity” never occurs in Bible text? Very simply, because it did not exist as Church doctrine till introduced in the same Nicean Council of 325 AD, by Constantine & his Roman Catholic Bishops. If we recall from The 10 Commandments, God decreed that we should have no other God’s before Him, [Ex. 20:2-3]. since the Trinity makes Jesus-“God the Son” this idolatrous doctrine puts the Man-Jesus [1Tim. 2:5] on an equal basis with The Almighty God, his Heavenly Father. This violates the Laws of Physics, as its impossible for a Man to be both finite and infinite, at the same time and same relationship. It also violates God’s will; Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one!” [Deut. 6:4-shema] As opposed to the polytheistic religions of her neighbors, Israel was deeply impressed with the truth that there is only One true God (hence, the term, “monotheism“). The monotheistic doctrine of God is an invioable tenet of Creator’s Doctrine at the headwaters of the Christian faith. When the Apostle’s wrote their Gospel’s and Epistle’s in the 1st Century after Christ’s Crucifixion in 28AD, there was no Trinitarian Church Doctrine except in the pagan nations that all shared a form of a Trinity of idol gods, as in Egypt with the Sun god Ra, Isis & Oriris, or in India with Brahma, Vishnu & Shiva, or ancient Greece; had Zeus, Athena & Apollo, or in Norse Mythology with; Odin, Freya & Thor. In Rome it was Jupiter, Juno & Minerva. Not till the 1st Roman Council of Nicea in 325 AD, did Roman Catholics legislate a policy agreed amongst Synod’s and Bishop’s to spread this malady of idolatry in the Christian Church.

Remember, Paul told us that, the household of God (Church) is “built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets [not Synods, Councils, and bishops], Jesus Christ himself being the chief comer stone”(Ephesians 2:20, 1 John 2:6). There was absolutely no authorization to change the framework of these major points of doctrine, disconnecting from Jesus Christ’s own worship exemplified by His life, habits, and customs as seen in Peter’s 1st Epistle-

(1 Peter 2:20-24); 20 For what credit is it if, when you are beaten for your faults, you take it patiently? But when you do good and suffer, if you take it patiently, this is commendable before God. 21 For to this you were called, because Christ also suffered for [e]us, leaving [f]us an example, that you should follow his steps: 22 “Who committed no sin, Nor was deceit found in his mouth”; 23 who, when he was reviled, did not revile in return; when he suffered, he did not threaten, but committed [3680#10] himself to Him Who Judged righteously; 24
who himself bore our sins in his own body on the tree, that we, having died to sins, might live for righteousness—by whose [g]stripes you were healed.

Yes, its by the example of Jesus’ own worship, he commits himself to the Only Righteous Judge; the Greek word for ‘commit‘ here is [paradidomi–#3860; yield up, to surrender, entrust, transmit, cast, give over. Jesus gave himself over to surrender to God’s will, even in his prayer to Almighty Father in the Garden of Gethsamane that this cup might pass, but His [the Heavenly Father’s will] be done. This act of worship and obedience to the Heavenly Father is seen in  the early life of Christ, as he was always about His Father’s business. [Lk. 2: 49]

1Cor. 15:20-28 20 But now Christ is risen from the dead, and has become the firstfruits of those who have [d]fallen asleep. 21 For since by man came death, by Man also came the resurrection of the dead. 22 For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ all shall be made alive. 23 But each one in his own order: Christ the firstfruits, afterward those who are Christ’s at his coming. 24 Then comes the end, when he delivers the kingdom to God the Father, when He puts an end to all rule and all authority and power. 25 For he must reign till He has put all enemies under his feet. 26 The last enemy that will be destroyed is death. 27 For “He has put all things under his feet.” But when He says “all things are put under him,” it is evident that He Who put all things under  him is excepted. 28 Now when all things are made subject to Him, then the Son himself will also be subject [#5293–hupotasso–submission in a dependent position, 2Cor. 9:13, 1Tim. 3:4-5]#11 to Him who put all things under him, that God may be all in all.

As the Almighty Heavenly Father put all things under the feet of Christ, in the finality of events God Almighty-Who put all things under Christ, Himself is excepted in v. 27. As the exception, and the Righteous Judge of all, including the Son who is also subject to God the Father-Who put all things under Christ. This is the Godly designed order and spiritual heirarchy that we all share life in, not a Trinity of 3 god’s where the Son is made “God-man“. This, of course was the other link to God of the Jews, that Rome sought to sever, the Righteous Judge who judged not only all Egyptian god’s in 10 plagues against Pharaoh, but all rebellious fallen spirits in idol pantheons in Satan’s world dominion, [Lk. 4:5-8, Dan. 11:10-13].

 It is important we recall: Jesus Christ never kept an Easter in His life! Unequivocally, it is undeniable that Easter has no Biblical connection, foundation, or authority on the name of Jesus Christ requiring observance and/or recognition by any who claim Christ as their Savior.

Yet, regardless of these verifiable facts; this trend finally became law in the year A.D. 325 at the Council of Nicaea. Notice, in the Catholic Encyclopedia: “The emperor himself [Constantine] writing to the churches after the council of Nicaea, exhorts, ‘At this meeting the question concerning the most holy day of Easter was discussed, and it was resolved by the united judgment of all present [regardless of the example/commands of Jesus Christ and original apostolic fathers, Matthew 26:17-30] that this feast ought to be kept by all and in every place on one and the same day [Easter Sunday]…And first of all it appeared an unworthy thing that in celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who impiously defiled their hand with enormous sin… for we have received from our Savior a different way [Where then, is the Biblical proof or Christological authorization?] …and I [Constantine] have undertaken that this decision should meet with the approval of your sagacity in the hope that your wisdoms will gladly admit that practice which is observed [Easter Sunday] at once in the city of Rome and in Africa, throughout Italy and Egypt… with entire unity of judgment.” #12

And finally, under the article “Councils” in the Catholic Encyclopedia again, we read about the purpose of the Council of Nicaea. ‘The 1st Ecumenical Council, of Nicaea (325 A.D.) lasted two months and twelve days. Three [318] hundred and eighteen bishops were present. Hosius, bishop of Cordova, assisted as legate of Pope Sylvester. The Emperor, Constantine, was also present. To the council we owe the Creed of Nicaea, defining against Arius the true divinity of the Son of God [Arius challenged the divinity of Jesus Christ], and the fixing of the date for keeping Easter [opposing the Quartodecimans who observed Passover]. #13

It was now made “official”: Easter Sunday, the day after the first full moon, after the spring equinox, became the day to celebrate Christ’s resurrection. This was a serious and critical shift of theology. Critical, as it not only changed the day of the observance, but changed the focus, and meaning of the observance. It now became an observance and celebration of his resurrection, contrary to the Biblical admonition of remembering the willing sacrifice of His death! In the Creed of Nicaea we note the dual purpose of the Council of Nicaea; first to define the divinity of the Son of God [the idol “God-Man“], the Trinity and 2nd to fix the date for keeping Easter, to separate it from the 14th of Nisan to preface the further idolatry of the pagan Spring festivals of Astrate.  

Jesus Christ’s act of surrender to the Will of the Heavenly Father, made the will of the Son himself also subject [#5293-hupotasso–submissive in a dependent position Jesus Christ so he could fulfill the purpose God sent him to complete, to endure the Cross as an act of Jesus’ will and Faith to agree with the Father, as seen in Heb. 12:2; below.

Hebrews 12:1-2
“Therefore we also, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which so easily ensnares us, and let us run with endurance the race that is set before us, 2 looking unto Jesus, the [a]
author and [b]finisher of our faith, who for the joy that was set before him endured the cross, despising the shame, and has sat down at the right hand of the throne of God.”

Notice what Paul says, “For as often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do shew the Lord’s death [not His resurrection] till he come” (1 Corinthians 11:26). There is a purposeful point of significance our Lord placed exclusively on Passover concerning His death. It’s fundamental, but crucial to understand; Passover was intended to distinctly address the impeccable fact that it was by Jesus Christ’s sacrificed life and shed blood that we have access to eternal life. Unfortunately, merging His death and resurrection in one holy day, embodied in Easter, blurs a deep profound meaning of both these events by removing  the emphasis that each so richly deserves.

Sadly, on a broader scale, the abandonment of the observance of God’s holy days has contributed to this greatly. Understanding the additional holy days throughout the year, their enriched meanings and sequence they portray, would clarify how each step in the salvation/atonement process is explained for our understanding and spiritual edification.

After the Council of Nicaea, the Roman government became more entangled with the ecclesiastical matters of the Church, derailing it further from the original intent by multiple means. “Emperor Theodosius (A.D. 78-98) made Christianity the State Religion of the Roman Empire, making membership in the church compulsory. This was the worst calamity that has ever befallen the Church. The forced conversion filled the churches with unregenerate people. Christ had designed to outreach by purely spiritual and moral means. Up to this time conversion was voluntary, a genuine change in heart and life. But now the military spirit of Imperial Rome had entered the Church. The Church conquered the Roman Empire. But in reality the Roman Empire conquered the Church, by making the Church over into the image of the Roman Empire. The Church had changed its nature, had entered its great Apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2: 1-12), had become a political organization in the Spirit and pattern of Imperial Rome, and took its nose-dive into the millennium of Papal abominations. The Imperial Church of the 4th and 5th centuries had become an entirely different institution from the persecuted Church of the first three centuries. In its ambition to rule, it lost and forgot the Spirit of Christ” (Halley’s Bible Handbook, “Paganization of the Church,” p. 760). #14

Regrettably, the combination of Rome’s secular power and the integration of fertility symbols and observances, adopted from many of the existing pagan religions that saturated Rome, took its toll; and by means of forced compliance and/or persecution, marginalized the true Church, reducing its influence. Notice again, “Conversion of Barbarians, the Goths, Vandals, and Huns who overthrew the Roman Empire accepted Christianity; but to a large extent their conversion was nominal and this further filled the Church with pagan practices.

“…Even as every generation seeks to interpret Christ in terms of its own thinking, so, no sooner had Christianity made its appearance than it began its process of amalgamation in Greek & Oriental philosophies; and there arose many Sects…”

The historical record of the Passover/Easter controversy is a prime illustration of how man endeavors to evade God, avoiding His authority. History reveals the combination of the Greco-Roman government, implemented by ecclesiastical authority of the Popes and Catholic Councils over the centuries, replaced Passover with Easter. There is absolutely no Biblical directive or Christ–like example throughout the whole Bible authorizing the institution of Easter as a Christian holy day! It’s simply a man-made tradition, adopted, concocted, and assimilated with ancient pagan fertility rites and symbols that are linked to the “sun-worshipping” cults of Babylon that came down to us through the Greco-Macedonian/Roman cultures. Lamentably, over the years, it has contributed to misdirecting much of the vast Christian community, causing it to render laws of God of none effect because of the traditions of men. Even Jesus Christ had to personally deal with this same principle during His ministry and cautioned against it. Notice what He said. “Full well ye reject the commandment of God, that ye may keep your own tradition” (Mark 7:6-9).

As we observed our Communion Passover this month, I trust this history of the transformation of the Biblical Passover into the Roman Catholic Easter, along with the introduction of the Roman Catholic Trinity doctrine, regarding the identity of Jesus Christ-the only begotten Son of God, we find evidence of a role of the Roman Catholic Church to influence Biblical Christian Churches to re-interpret the Passover observance of Jesus Christ and his Apostles and Prophets. As we are aware of these Roman Catholic historical records to this effect, we can better equip ourselves to walk circumspectly and avoid the snares and doctrinal pitfalls that our spiritual adversary has laid for us.

God Bless!

Rene’

 

Footnotes

1. [Jesus Christ Our Passover-Appendix 4] American Christian Press.
2. Strong’s Concordance, [4415-4416], James Strong
3. Jesus Christ Our Promised Seed, American Christian Press.
4. Strong’s Concordance, #1184-dektos-a form of Dechomai-#1209], James Strong
5. Tyndale’s New Bible Dictionary p. 1002 
6. Strong’s Concordance, [#2146]-to pierce, invoke in memory, James Strong
7. https://www.ucg.org/sermons/quartodecimans-and-council-nicea-325-ad-how-passover-got-changed [blog content adopted from this text]
8. https://www.cgi.org/new-page-56  [blog content adopted from this text]
9. Catholic Encyclopedia
10. Strong’s Concordance, [#3680-paradidomi], James Strong
11. IBID [#5293-hupotasso-submit in a dependent stance, 2Cor. 9:13, 1Tim. 3:4-5].
12. Catholic Encyclopedia
13. IBID
14.  (Halley’s Bible Handbook, “Paganization of the Church,” p. 761).