Cuneiform Tablets | Try-God.org

King Cyrus God’s Anointed King

Welcome to July 2026′ 12th Anniversary Blog folks!

July‘s study marks 12 years of Biblical Astronomy research in honor of the Celestial Gospel. As we proceed in our work in Persia’s Empire, we reveal facts of King’s Darius I, Xerxes 1, & Artaxerxes I, in their transfer of royal power. Our unity on the topic infers Queen Esther’s husband was Darius I, due to Mordecai’s old age, that makes it a study goal to uncover an identity of Xerxes’ wife. This urges a study of all evidence from other views, to fully examine the topical context. We must first expose the
chronology ending Darius‘ reign, & opens to Xerxes’ rule. To align the chronology, we cite a key period in history lined up with a co-regency of Xerxes 1 & Darius 1. The key in hunting a history of this co-regency found by Gerard Gertoux,‘ tied to periodic astronomical intercalations:

Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I, sparked a chronological debate among Greek historians as to whether Xerxes died in 475 BC, according to Herodotus and Thucydides, or in 465 BC, according to the Babylonian royal lists, was decided by the famed Greek astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy, who published around 150 AD the Babylonian (and Achaemenid) chronology dated after the Nabonassar era, that began in 748 BC. Claudius Ptolemy converted all Babylonian dates into the Egyptian civil calendar, that allowed him to verify historical synchronisms with Egyptian chronology. He also veriﬁed accurately some lunar eclipses found in astronomical tablets dated in Year of the King (Almagest). A result of Ptolemy’s reliance on veriﬁably–dated eclipses, is all historians after 150 AD, without exception, adopted Babylonian chronology and modiﬁed the Greek chronology to bring it into line with the new absolute chronology of the Achaemenid period. The Babylonian chronology established by Claudius Ptolemy was conﬁrmed by the BM 34576 tablet (copy of the King List dated 99 BC). A study of all tablets (contracts & inscriptions) dated during the period 626–331 BC was published (Parker, Dubberstein: 1956) and demonstrated that all durations of the Achaemenid period agreed with those of the Babylonian royal lists, providing several short co-regencies were admitted shortly before and during the enthronement of the new king.” #1

The accession of Xerxes in year 26 of Darius I (496 BC) occurred in a normal year, made his first year of reign an intercalary year (in Babylon), but since Xerxes resided in Persepolis the Persian astronomical priests did not add an intercalary month at year’s end (XIIb), they visibly began a new cycle of intercalation from the 2nd year of Xerxes (2U), shifting Xerxes intercalation cycle, that began in Persepolis (Ossendrijver: 2018, 141), from that of Darius. The intercalation cycle began during the reign of Xerxes, continuing till the end of Artaxerxes I’ reign. #2 In our last 2 blog-studies we presented Eclipse evidence for the Death of Xerxes in 475BC from Gerard Gertoux. #3

We find in 475 BC the Moon was 20° behind Sagittarius, and in 465 BC it was in the sign Sagittarius. According to an astronomical tablet the 1st lunar eclipse [total] was: in Sagittarius‘ 4 rear stars in [475 BC]. Thus, according to the astronomy, Xerxes died (14/V/21) on Wed. 23, August 475 BC with his accession 21 years earlier in 496 BC, also Darius I’ Year 26. Despite Pierre Briant denying his co–regency due to his ideology, he admits Xerxes was Crown Prince long before Darius‘ death, because if Xerxes
became Crown Prince just before the death of Darius, one would have to admit that this king waited a long time-till he was 72 years old in 486 BC#43/4, as Xerxes was 35 yrs old, when his parent’s union dated to
Darius’ accession in 522 BC. Consequently, this chronology involves Xerxes’ choice before 490 BC. #44/5. In fact, Xerxes was both the crown prince and co–regent, in a 10-year co-regency, with his accession from
496BC till the death of Darius in 486BC.

Alignment depends on Accession Date.The alignment of the Persian & Jewish years of Xerxes to any postdated reign, depends on whether a Persian or Jewish New Year came first after accession. If Xerxes’ year 21 on a Persian Calendar was 465, his year 1 was 485 BC, from spring to spring; he must have come to the throne some time before that, since his “accession year was the part of his reign preceding his first full calendar year. The date of his accession can be shown some time preceding Nov.

486BC, because the latest known tablet dated in his father-Darius‘ last regnal year is in the 7th month, and was first dated in Xerxes‘ reign in the 8th month (approx. Dec. 1). #38/6After his accession in November, 486 BC, the first New Year’s Day to arrive was the Egyptian-1st of Thoth, in December (Fig. 2- I);#39/7. The Egyptian 1st year began, but those of his subjects who used the Babylonian-Persian calendar (band 2) would not begin to date by his year I until the next Nisanu I, the next Spring; and those who used the Jewish fall-to-fall; Tishri calendar (band 3) continued to date the accession year until their New Year’s Day came-next Tishri I, in the 7th month–almost a year after his accession and half a year after the Persian year I had begun. (That’s why, in some of these papyri, the Dateline in 2 calendars can have 2 regnal year numbers.) So, in his reign, any specific year of Xerxes from year I to year 21–began the earliest in the Egyptian calendar, then in a Persian calendar, and last in the Jew’s calendar. This demonstrated that the Jewish year 21, reckoned from Tishri I, must be 465BC.#7a.

As we see in the Book of [Esther 1:9-19, 2:4] Ahasuerus‘ former wife was Vashti. Yet, the Great Feast described in v. 3, the 3rd year of his reign as we learn from Persian inscriptions was held in preparation for the Persian expedition against Greece, after the death of Darius, who relinquished the title-Ahasuerus to his co-regent son Xerxes, ruling 485-465 BC, leading a vast Persian army against Greece c. 482-1 BC.#7b He fought famed battles of Thermopalyae & Salamis in 480 BC, & married Esther in the 7th year of his reign [Est. 2:16-17], in 478 BC. #8

A key Archaeological inscription from the Shushan Palace @ Susa-200 miles East of Babylon, capital of Elam & winter residence of Kings of Persia was a site identified by Loftus in 1852, where the record from Artaxerxes II [405-358 BC] says; “My ancestor Darius [521-485 BC] built this palace in former times. In the reign of my grandfather [Artaxerxes 1; 465-425 BC] it was burned. I have restored it.” The palace where Darius resided, who authorized the rebuild of the Jerusalem Temple; of Xerxes as Esther’s husband; and Artaxerxes 1, who authorized a restoration of Jerusalem by Nehemiah.” #8a

The location of this inscription was in the famed building in Susa called its “Apadana“, an audience hall of the Palace of Darius. Apadana-the word is only known from Susa – was built together with the palace by Darius I the Great (r.522-486BC). This can be deduced from an inscription known as A2Sa, written for Artaxerxes II Mnemon (r.404-358), who finished a restoration of the complex after a great fire during the reign of his grandfather, Artaxerxes I Makrocheir (r.465-424/423): The inscription below reads in part:

“Artaxerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of all nations, the king of this world, the son of king Darius [II Nothus], Darius the son of Artaxerxes king [I Makrocheir], Artaxerxes the son of king Xerxes, Son
of king Darius, Darius the son of Hystaspes, the Achaemenid, says: My ancestor Darius I the Great, made the apadana, but during the reign of Artaxerxes my grandfather, it was burnt down; but, by grace of Ahura-mazda, Anahita, & Mithra, I reconstructed the audience hall. So Ahura-mazda, Anahita, & Mithra protect me against all evil, and may they never destroy or damage what I have built.” #8b

A Pillar Capital “Bull“ of the Apadana at Susa. #8b1

**Apadana**, site of the ***throne*** among the 36 column **bases** in the audience hall is a ***thirty-seventh foundation***, in the exact *center* if one enters from the northern, main entrance. This must have been the **place of the throne of the Achaemenid king**. #8c The fact that there are **no columns left** to be erected, makes it hard to imagine what a splendid building the Apadana was in Antiquity. Thus, only the column‘ bases are left in Susa today, seen below;

A key Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions is the “**daiva** **inscription**“. The *Old Persian text,* known from 3 stone slabs from **Persepolis** & the **Pasargadae**
citadel, (Elamite and Babylonian copies exist.) The interesting detail for why this text has become **famous** turns on a **meaning** of the *word* ***daiva***, that clearly means “**demon**” and looks ***similar*** to the word *daeva* in the ***Avesta***
(Zoroastrian holy book). If *daiva* & *daeva* agree, it makes it more likely the **rebels** lived in **Iran**, **where the** **Zoroastrian religion held sway**. **But**, if these words clash; ***daiva*** refers to ***idols*** of Babylon or Egypt.#**8c1**

Biblically King Cyrus is recalled as a Messianic figure, [Isa. 45:1] called “His anointed-[4899-mashiyach]-refers to a class of patriarchs, priests or kings– based on Messiah/Christ-Christos G5547, 1Sam. 2:7-10, 2Sam. 22:51, Ps. 9:2-7, 18:50]” to open the 2-leaved gates of Babylon that shall not be shut, as Isaiah declared [Isa. 44:28-45:1]. As King David in the royal Christ-line became the archetype of the Messiah. [Acts 13:32-37, Heb. 5:5-10] King Cyrus, as a Gentile King, God called as the “Lord’s Anointed” to deliver Israel from their captor’s in Babylon, returning them to their homeland. As King Cyrus authorized the rebuilding of
the Jerusalem Temple, freeing the Jews from exile in their Babylonian Captivity, returned to their Promised Land of Israel. #8f

The Midrash is a genre of Jewish Biblical exegesis, ^[2] including Talmudic
texts that use a classical rabbinic mode of homiletical interpretation (derash). This word means; “textual interpretation“, “study”, or “exegesis“,^[3] derived from a root verb (דָּרַשׁ‎)- darash, which means “resort to, seek, seek with care, enquire, require.”#8g

As we consider the royalty of the book of Esther, concepts of Ahasuerus & Vashti are found in the Rabbinic Midrash, with other sources where Vashti was considered of royal blood. Midrash involves interpretation
of Scripture to elucidate legal points [Midrash Halakah], or bring out lessons via stories or homiletics [Midrash Aggadah]. #8h Midrash is too named for the Rabbinic interpretations, of rabbinic readings to “discern value in texts, words, and letters, as potential revelatory vehicles.” “They review major Scripture narratives that suggest alternate readings to stand beside—not replace—existing grammatical text. #9

Midrash is also used in a rabbinic work that interprets Scripture in this manner^,[7]^[8] containing early interpretations and commentaries on Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons), as well as non-legalistic rabbinic literature (aggadah) and at times Jewish religious laws (halakha), usually forming running commentary on specific passages in the Hebrew Scripture. The midrash conveys that Vashti was the orphaned daughter of Belshazzar; God was her help and kept her alive to be wed to the emperor of Persia and Media, even tho she was Chaldean (=Babylonian) (Esth. Rabbah 3:5).#10

Belshazzar had been known only from the Book of Daniel (chapt. 5, 7–8) and from Xenophon’s Cyropaedia till 1854, when references to him were found in Babylonian cuneiform inscriptions. Though in the Book of Daniel he was the son of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian inscriptions indicate that he was in fact the eldest son of Nabonidus, who was king of Babylon from 555 to 539, and of Nitocris, who was perhaps a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. As the last king of a Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC when Babylon fell the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Its possible that Nabonidus was married to a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar II’. Not only would such a link explain Nabonidus’s rise to the throne (as part of the royal family), but it also accounts for histories where Belshazzar is found as Nebuchadnezzar’s descendant. In the Bible Book of Daniel– Belshazzar is not only known as Nebuchadnezzar’s grand-son,^[10]but Daniel himself appears to have dated events in the years of Belshazzar’s co-regency, [Dan. 7:1, 8:1]. As Nabonidus goes into exile (550), he entrusted Belshazzar with the throne and the major part of his army, when Belshazzar oversaw the government, his own estates, and those of his father.#11

Jer. 27:6-7 “Now I have given all these lands into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, My servant, and I have given him also the wild animals of the field to serve him. 7 All the nations shall serve him and his son and his grandson until the time of his own land comes; then many nations and great kings will make him their servant.”

Nebuchadnezzar’s Family Tree Chart #11a

The Kings of Babylon were also mentioned in the book of Daniel. Do these prophecies of Jeremiah harmonize with Daniel Chapter 5?

Jeremiah’s prophecy that many nations (including Judah) and great kings (including Jehoiachin) would serve Nebuchadnezzar and “his son and his grandson.” So Babylon was predicted to end with Nebuchadnezzar’s grand-son. Indeed it ended 60 years later with Belshazzar, son of the state noble Nabonidus who was a usurper to the throne, nonetheless not in the line of Nebuchadnezzar, who allied the Babylonians with the Medes via another royal wedding: as the Babylonian crown prince Nebuchadnezzar married Amytis, the daughter of Astyages. Via the Chart above we find Nabonidus married Nitrocis, Nebuchadnezzar’s daughter, making him Nebuchadnezzar’s son-in-law and Belshazzar, Nebuchadnezzar’s grandson.

If Darius I was indeed the husband of Esther, then what does history tell us about Darius’ wife?

Via Herodotus, Otanes was blessed with royal marriages. Darius I married Otanes’ daughter; Phaedymia while Otanes married a sister of Darius, who gave birth to Amestris. As Queen of the Achaemenid empire, daughter of Otanes (Ctesias, fragment 13, par. 24 [in Jacoby, Fragmente] gives Onophas), one of seven conspirators against Gaumata. She was married to Xerxes I (Herodotus 7.61.2) and was mother of Artaxerxes I, Amytis, and others. She died at an old age, near the end of Artaxerxes’ I reign.#12

Amestris was a daughter of Otanes, one of seven nobles reputed to have killed the magus impersonating King Bardiya in 522 BC. After this, Darius I the Great of Persia assumed the throne. The right side of the chart below shows an Achaemenid lineage, while the left side details Bardiya/Smerdis usurpers as pretenders opposed by Darius to Cyrus I’ throne.

Thus, if Xerxes I who was co-regent with Darius I- starting 496 BC was not Esther’s husband, then who was Xerxes’ wife? History points us to a woman named Amastris;

Amestris (Greek: Άμηστρις, Amēstris, perhaps the same as Άμαστρις, Amāstris, from Old Persian Amāstrī–, “strong woman“)^[2] was an Achaemenid queen, wife of king Xerxes I and mother of king Artaxerxes I.^[3]^[4] She was an influential woman of the Achaemenid era, very powerful and vindictive.#13 ^{[5]

1. Achaemenid queen, daughter of Otanes (Ctesias, fragment 13, par. 24 [in Jacoby, Fragmente] gives Onophas), who was one of seven conspirators who killed the Persian usurper king Gaumâta (22 September 522 BC). After this, Darius I the Great who reigned from 522-486BC opened his rule. According to Greek historian Herodotus, (5th century), Otanes was honored in diplomatic marriage: the new king married Otanes’ daughter Phaedymia, as Otanes married a sister of Darius, who birthed Amestris.}

Family tree of Amestris

Amastris married Xerxes I (Herodotus 7.61.2) and as mother of Artaxerxes I, Amytis, and others, she had a bad reputation of being licentious and notoriously cruel; (Ctesias, fragment 14), she exercised a baneful influence in Artaxerxes’ court; e.g., she is said to have caused the wife of her brother-in-law Masistes to be mutilated (Herodotus 9.109-l2) One of the only consistent facts in Persian succession referenced in history is the mother of a legitimate heir was always Persian. In fact, all royal wives marked in Greek and Persian sources were Persian women. Any consort who wasn’t, is marked as a concubine.#14 This is a popular case for why Esther as Jewess Queen with Persian King fell in history

under a shadow of doubt. But as Mordecai the Grand Vizier & adopted Father of Esther, advised she conceal her genealogy, these facts did not come to light till afterwards. The Hebrew-Greek Septuagint– as the source text for the book of Esther, was produced in a later Persian or early Seleucid period, belonging to a Hellenistic genre. For more on Esther: see Ego, B. (2019) “Prayer & Emotion in the Septuagint of Esther“ Ego, B. (2006) Esther, Brill Online.#15” After the death of Atossa, Amastris, the wife of Xerxes, whom Greek writers such as Herodotus describe as a powerful yet cold-hearted woman, played a leading role in Xerxes’ court. Amastris also accompanied him during his military campaign against Greece.”^[15]“Amastris, the first lady of Xerxes’ court, was a most formidable & ruthless women of her time. Though many of the actions attributed to her by Greek historians cannot be fully accepted, the surviving evidence points to her psychological strength and authority.Amastris outlived Xerxes, remained active in royal affairs serving as Queen mother during a long reign of her son Artaxerxes I. “During his reign, powers of kingdom influence were in her hands. The young king, Artaxerxes I, was heavily swayed by his mother, Amastris, and his sister, Amestris. The Queen Mother lived a long life, and her reputable standing of lineage and wealth, ranked highly, as her authority and respect remained intact until the end. She died in early 424 BC, aged near ninety, with the passing of Artaxerxes himself following soon after.^[12]^[13]#16

Midrash is also used of a rabbinic work that interprets Scripture in this manner^,[7]^[8] containing early interpretations and commentaries on Written Torah and Oral Torah (spoken law and sermons).#17 Midrash also asks questions of the text; proding the reader to seek truth, at times providing text driven answers,”

As a Jewish mode of interpretation; Midrash not only engages the words of the text, behind the text, and beyond the text, but is focused on each letter, and their part in forming the words of each line.

Mordechai and the Jehoiachin Exile

A good reason for reading the story of the megillah as having occurred before the rebuilding of the Temple comes in Esther 2:5 introducing Mordechai:

^{אסתר ב:ה} אִישׁ יְהוּדִי הָיָה בְּשׁוּשַׁן הַבִּירָה וּשְׁמוֹ מָרְדֳּכַי בֶּן יָאִיר בֶּן שִׁמְעִי בֶּן קִישׁ אִישׁ יְמִינִי.^ב:ו אֲשֶׁר הָגְלָה מִירוּשָׁלַיִם עִם הַגֹּלָה אֲשֶׁר הָגְלְתָה עִם יְכָנְיָה מֶלֶךְ יְהוּדָה אֲשֶׁר הֶגְלָה נְבוּכַדְנֶאצַּר מֶלֶךְ בָּבֶל.

^{Esth. 2:5}In the fortress Shushan lived a Jew by the name of Mordecai, son of Jair son of Shimei son of Kish, a Benjaminite. ^2:6 Who was exiled from Jerusalem in the group that was carried into exile along with King Jeconiah of Judah, which had been driven into exile by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.

As a son of Kish, this name of the father of King Saul, another Benjaminite, the Talmud accords Mordecai the status of a descendant of the first King of Israel.
Grammatically speaking, the clause “who had been exiled” can refer to Kish or to Mordecai. If the rabbis hold to the latter, it means that Mordechai lived during the 1st exile, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. According to Daniel 9:2, Jerusalem lay desolate for 70 years before the Temple was rebuilt, that would be 81 years after Mordechai had been exiled. As it is hard to imagine Mordechai– a 100-110+ year old man in the story, so the rabbis would have to agree that the story of the megillah took place before the Temple was rebuilt.#18 This agrees with the record of Ezra 4;

Ezra 4:1 “Now when the ^[a]adversaries of Judah and Benjamin heard the descendants of the captivity were building the temple of the Lord God of Israel… they opposed and discouraged them…

Ezra 4:4-6
³But Zerubbabel and Jeshua and the rest of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Israel said to them, “You may do nothing with us to build a ^[b]house for our God; but we alone will build to the Lord God of Israel, as King Cyrus the king of Persia has commanded us.” ⁴Then the people of the land tried to discourage the people of Judah. They troubled them in building, ⁵and hired counselors against them to frustrate their purpose all the days of Cyrus king of Persia, even until the reign of Darius king of Persia.

Achashverosh [Ahasuerus] reigned between Daryavesh (=Darius I), during whose reign the Temple was rebuilt (Ezra 6:15), & Artachshasta (=Artaxerxes I).^[7] This supports the idea that Achashverosh was identified with Xerxes.#19

The Seal of Xerxes

Seal of Xerxes. Perrot & Chipiez 1890 fig. 497, via Briant 2002 fig. 30.

O leaves tender and beautiful
of my beloved plane tree
On you may fate shine resplendent
May thunder, lighting, and storms
never intrude, ever, on your dear peace of mind,
nor may there be any wind that comes to violate you
—some violent wind from the west.

Shade there never was
of any plant
so dear and lovely
or any more sweet.

Trans. Gregory Nagy

As the Seal of Xerxes shows, his veneration of the Tree of Life, which for him is a plane tree that grows in the Greek-speaking territory of Asia Minor, as an overarching symbol of his ambition as king of a multi-ethnic Persian Empire. But the king’s failure on the West side of the Aegean Sea led to an occlusion of his imperial ambition—to be replaced by the ambitions of other Persian kings, all devotees of the Tree of Life.#19a

Mordechai

In an introductory statement about the reign of Xerxes, after presenting two of Xerxes’ influential advisors, Ctesias writes; “among the eunuchs,^[29] Natacas (Nατακας) exercised the greatest influence.”^[30] A few lines later, he refers to a eunuch of Xerxes named Matacas (Ματακας). These two names likely reflect the same person.^[31]

The “as” at the end of either name is almost certainly a Greek addition. Thus, “Matacas” suggests a Persian name with the consonants MTC, which would be very close to the consonants of the name Mordechai, MRDC.^[32] Even the name “Natacas” is not that different. “N” and “M” are related consonants, both being nasal stops; it is not unusual for one to transform into the other.

With either form of the name, the information provided by Ctesias, that he was a high-ranking official in Xerxes court, bears a strong resemblance to the last verse in the Megillah, which records by the end of the story, Mordechai was 2nd mishneh (=second) to the king. So, the Matacas of Ctesias and Mordechai of the Megillah may refer to the same historical person.#20

In checking in the tablets of Persepolis that Mordecai was an eminent royal scribe called Marduka who worked with Tatennai, the Governor beyond the River, under the direction of Uštanu, the satrap of Babylon, during the years 17 to 32 of Darius. Similarly, the narrative of Herodotus regarding Amestris (a name meaning ‘vigorous woman’ in Old Persian), Xerxes‘ unique wife and only queen known in Persia, corresponds in many ways to Esther; ‘star’-Old Persian”

despite the unfavourable and biased description of the Persian queen.

According to the book of Esther there was a plot to kill Xerxes which was thwarted in the 11th year of his reign, we read: Bigthan and Teresh, two eunuchs & official‘s–ministers of the King’s Court — the porters — were outraged seeking to lay hands on King Ahasuerus. But this thing came to be known to Mordecai, and he soon revealed it to Queen Esther. Then Esther told the king in Mordecai’s name. The case was thus sought and finally discovered, with both hanged on a pole (…) Shortly afterwards. In the 1st month, that is the month of Nisan, the 12th year of King Ahasuerus (Est 2:21–3:7). This serious accusation against the Jews is dated in the 12th year of Xerxes legal reign (Est. 3:7–10), at the start of his effective reign, (Ezr. 4:6).

This information from Ctesias & Plutarch overlap, making it possible to locate the two brief reigns of Bel–šimânni and Šamaš–erîba in year 485 BC or early in the effective reign of Xerxes after the death of Darius. Contemporary records in Babylonian archives dating to the reigns of Bêl-šimânni and Šamaš-eriba; over a division of a large satrapy of Babylonia, early in Xerxes’ reign in 2 parts, as seen in the “daiva inscription” of Xerxes, that recorded the suppression of a

religious revolt in the empire. A remark by Roman author Arrian of Nicomedia, using 4th-century BC sources, stated Xerxes subdued a Babylonian revolt on his return from the war against Greece (479 BC). Via Arrian, Xerxes punished the city by closing the Esagila, Temple of Marduk, center of Babylon’s state cult. North of the Esagila was the Etemenanki, the ‘Foundation of heaven on earth‘, better known to us as the ‘Tower of Babel‘ [Gen. 11]. This temple tower (or ziggurat) was 92 meters high and had seven levels. According to the Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus, the Persian king Xerxes had a statue removed from the Esagila when he sacked the city.#21

Figure 3. Ziggurat of Susa. 21a.

Chogha Zanbil [ Dūr Untash Ziggurat ] | Chiyakotravel

Parrot’s survey includes numerous illustrations, for example, a three-tiered structure on an Old Babylonian cylinder seal, four-to five-tiered towers on Assyrian cylinder seals, and a five-tiered ziggurat of Susa on a relief sculpture shows Assurbanipal’s Elamite campaign.#21b In addition, a considerable body of literary and pictorial evidence documents a concept of 7-level Ziggurats: 1. The Esagila tablet from Uruk (AO 6555), first noticed by George Smith in 1876, dates to 229 BC,#21c. and is now also known from a partial duplication in the British Museum (BM 40813), they are thought to be copies of an original no later than the early-seventh century BC.#21d. This displays the dimensions of the temple-tower Etemenanki (é.temen.an.ki) part in a complex @ Esagila-in Babylon, completed by Nebuchadrezzar II. Seven stages are described, in their respective dimensions (AO 6555 ll. 36–42). The height of the structure equal to the base, agreeing with Strabo’s input, & Frankfort’s deduction on the original height of the ziggurat at Khorsabad.

At Khorsabad only four stages were discerned, but Frankfort thought it reasonable that there had been three further stages, as the height of the structure would then match the base “which was, according to Strabo, the case in Babylon.”#21e.

The Ziggurat at Ur.

SÃÂ¼merler, MezopotamyaÃ¢ÂÂya yaklaÃÂÃÂ±k olarak M.ÃÂ. 3500Ã¢ÂÂlerden sonra gelmeye baÃÂlamÃÂ±ÃÂtÃÂ±r.

This sets out dimensions of the temple tower Etemenanki (é.temen.an.ki) of the Esagila complex in Babylon, completed by Nebuchadrezzar II. Seven stages are described, with their respective dimensions (AO 6555 ll. 36–42).
A broken Neo-Babylonian stele (MS 2063) in the Schøyen Collection depicts a king, apparently Nebuchadrezzar II, “standing before a ziggurrat of 7-stories drawn in outline & labelled [é].tem[en] .an.ki [ziqúra-at ba-bili (ká.dingir.ra)ki ‘E-temen-anki, ziqqurrat of Babylon.’ #21f.

If the Babylonian revolts occurred during the first year 1 of Xerxes’ reign, a chronological ranking of contracts29 tells us that they took place when the king had been fully recognized in Borsippa, which would be quite illogical. In fact, for the Babylonians the legitimate king was Šamaš–erîba. For a Babylonian scribe, Xerxes, an Achaemenid, was a usurper in his 1st year of reign, not a legitimate king in his 11th year of reign. To avoid this scene historians have speculated that the Babylonian revolts were at their maximum near 484/ 483 rather than 485 BC, but this assumption is contradicted by 3 elements:

1. If the first Babylonian revolt occurred in 484 BC, this year would have been the 2nd regnal year of Xerxes, however two tablets of Šamaš–erîba are clearly dated in year 1 of Xerxes.

2. Greek historians describing the succession Darius/ Xerxes all indicate that some Babylonian revolts occurred just after the death of Darius, not 2 years later. In addition, that chronology makes sense because revolts usually occur just after the death of a king when some pretenders to the throne contest the succession, which was the case for Xerxes.

3. An astronomical fragment (JCS 1, 350 n°2) enables a dating of the Babylonian revolts. Although data are fragmentary they describe a revolt, clearly dated 05/IV/[?] during Xerxes’ reign (line 3 of the tablet) in perfect agreement with Bel–šimânni’s tablet (BM 87357). The astronomical fragment reads 30:

2) [...] ……. […]

3) [...] the month of Tammuz (IV), the 5th day […]

4) [...] to Babylon went […]

5) [...] the troops of Elam […]

6) [... the religion of Mars which to […]

7) [... Mars into Cancer entered …]

8) [... fled and into the river jumped and […]

9) [... to] Borsippa went, destroyed the city [...]

The historical notices appear to be related to a conflict between Babylon and Elam (Media and Persia). Line 4 indicates that the troops, &/or others, went to Babylon. Line 5 mentions the troops of Elam, and line 8 apparently refers to a military defeat (Here someone flees and then jumps into a river, a parallel is to be found in the annals of Assurbasirpal). In line 9 a group of people go to Borsippa. Lines 6–7 date these events to a year when the planet Mars was in

the vicinity of Cancer during the month of Tammuz (IV). Observations of Mars in this context may be more than coincidental since planet Mars is not only the planet of Nergal, the Babylonian War-god, but is also often linked with Elam in astrology. The fragment must refer to an astronomical omen rather than an astronomical diary for two reasons: most data comes from a chronicle rather than an astronomical record (in which historical events are rare); given that the constellation of Cancer covers 20° of the sky31 it needs 20 days for a planet

to cross it, preventing one from making observations dated to a specific days. For practical reasons, Mars was entered visibly in a star sign /constellation when it was crossing its centre. An astronomical simulation32 indicates that Mars was in the center of the constellation of Cancer near the 9th of April –484 (485 BC),

matching Nisan (1st month of Babylonian year), and again33 on March 6th–467 (468 BC). Presumably after the death of Darius, Babylonian priests, given the dissatisfaction with Babylon and this omen early in the reign of Xerxes (year 11), had predicted wars (which happened soon after).

Xerxes began his reign on two occasions, first as co-regent till 486 BC, his accession is dated III/00 (June), and again as true king after Darius 1′ death. dated 10/IX/10 (8 December 486 BC). Darius I 522-496 Darius I/Xerxes 496-486 Pherendates 496-486 Darius I/Xerxes 496-486 Xerxes I co-regency 486-475, 486 Bel-shimanni 14+/V/00 04/VI/00 xx/VI/00 “usurper” 485–485 Shamash-eriba 04/V ! /00 11/VIII/00 xx/VIII/00 “usurper” 485–485 Xerxes I 20/ V/21 14/V/21 –475 486

The fragment must refer to an astronomical omen rather than belonging to an astronomical diary for two reasons: most information comes from a chronicle rather than an astronomical record (where historical events are rare); given that the constellation of Cancer covers 20° of the sky#31 it needs 20 days to be crossed by a planet, which prevents one from making observations dated to specific days. For practical reasons, Mars entering visually into a constellation

when it was crossing its centre. An astronomical simulation#32 indicates that Mars was central in the sign Cancer near April 9th–484 (485 BC), matched in

Nisan (1st month of Babylonian year), & again #33 on 6 March –467 (468 BC). Presumably after Darius’ death, Babylonian priests, in their dissaffection with Babylon and this omen early in the reign of Xerxes (year 11), had predicted wars as (Greco-Persian wars happened soon after).

An astronomical tablet (BM 32234)34 contains 2 lunar eclipses and the death of Xerxes is dated 14/V. Given that the 2nd partial lunar eclipse is dated 14/VIII (November/ December) it is easy to check what year it occurred35. A complete analysis of these 2 eclipses (when they began and ended, how much area of the moon darkened. P = Partial; T = Total; N = Penumbral) enables us to keep only the year 475 BC (=–474), not dated 465 BC that’s usually agreed. #36/21g

(4) The use of “year 21” “accession year,” in either Persian or Jewish dating, agrees with the fact that no known Babylonian tablets recognize any other kings between Xerxes and Artaxerxes, though Jewish dating implies a gap before the beginning of Artaxerxes’ accession year in Egypt.

(5) The alignment of the regnal years of the same number in the Egyptian and the two Semitic calendars (attested by the synchronisms of Ptolemy’s Canon, the Saros list, double-dated papyri, and dated tablets) follows this order: Egyptian (December), Persian (spring), Jewish (fall), in the reign of
Xerxes; likewise in Artaxerxes’ reign the order is: Egyptian, followed by Persian, followed (if AP 6 has a Jewish date) by the Jewish.

(6) This alignment makes it clear that the year formula in AP 6 does not fit the Egyptian calendar, but is an exceptional but normal double formula in either the Persian or the Jewish calendars.#21h

Xerxes began his reign on two occasions, first as co-regent in 496 BC, his accession is dated III/00 (June), and again as true king after Darius 1 death. dated 10/IX/10 (8 December 486 BC). Xerxes I / [Xerxes as new king] 485 Xerxes I / Bel-šimânni 9 VI IX 0 Xerxes I / Šamaš-erîba Year 1 of Xerxes/ 24/VI/00 (BM 96414) 10 VII X 11 VIII XI 12 IX XII *** OECT 10 176 dated 5/IX/11 (Kish) 484 1 X I 12 2 XI II *** JCS 28 38 dated 24/XI/11 (unassigned) According to this chronological reconstruction, during his 10th year of reign-Xerxes was co-regent of Darius I until 8 December 486 BC, then full king after this date. As the years of reign began on the 1st Thoth in Egypt at that time (early Jan.), the 11th year of Xerxes’ reign began in January 485 BC, while this 11th year began in April 485 BC in Babylon. A careful study of Egyptian documents confirms this change in Xerxes’ status.#22

Indeed, G. Posener notes the Egyptian title of Xerxes had changed from his Year 10 but without giving the reason. In Posener’s collection of hieroglyphic inscriptions (Posener: 1936, 92, 120-124, 162), Posener classified Persian kings according to a chronology accepted in his time. But several anomalies can be explained only by assuming a 10-year co-regency between Xerxes & Darius. In these hieroglyphs, the Egyptian pharaohs, from Amasis to Artaxerxes, are still called “Lord of the Two Lands”, except Xerxes who is called “Master of Crowns” between year 1 and year 10 of his reign. He got a legal title of “Lord of the Two Lands”- official title of the Pharaohs of Egypt, only from his year 10. If Xerxes became Pharaoh shortly after Darius’ death, he then would have received the usual title “Lord of the Two Lands;“ to designate Egyptian kings, but the title was awarded him only in his year 10. In Addition, for no known reason, the name Darius changed from year 27 up to year 36 of his reign to become inDarius. This hieroglyph in, literally meaning “contribution” in Egyptian 14 , or “booster”, can’t be a phonetic complement, as it deteriorates the pronunciation. FIG. 2 Year 2 Month I Akhet Day 9 Master of crowns, Xerxes Year 6, Master of Crowns, Xerxes Year 10, Lord of the two lands, Xerxes (Dec. 486 BC) Year 6, Lord of the two lands, Cambyses (II) Year 36, Lord of the two lands, Darius (I) Year 12, Lord of the two lands, Xerxes 14 This hieroglyph appears in the names some pharaohs like Antef “contribution of his divine father”. It may be an abbreviation of the Egyptian word inpw “royal child”, meaning a pretender to the throne that is a “Crown prince”. #23

Egyptian documents dated in both lunar and the civil calendars allow absolute dates to be obtained because such date coincidences only occur every 25 years if the lunar day is correctly observed, every 11 years with a 1-day observation error. The Aramaic documents from Elephantine, dated over the period 525-398 BC, contain 21 well identified double dates, make it possible to anchor the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes on absolute dates.

As the “double dates” are witnessed in this context we can correlate Titles that refer to Egyptian Kings like Lord of the two Lands [upper & Lower Egypt] for example, to Persian Kings Darius, Xerxes & Artaxerxes. By cross-referencing the the historical reigns of the kings, as to when they held Egyptian titles, or the King of Babylon, with Persian Kings title, we can anchor the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes on absolute dates.

EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY THROUGH ASTRONOMICALLY DATED SYNCHRONISMS 11 TABLE 6 King of Babylon in Egypt Cambyses (II) Kambuzia K-n-b-w-d3 From 5th to 8th year King of Babylon, King of lands, Lord of the Two Lands– Darius (I) Dariawush (in)-šTi-rw-y-w-3 From 1st year to 36th year King of Babylon, King of lands, Lord of the Two Lands– Xerxes- Khisi‘arsa Ḫ-š3-y-rw-š3 From accession to 1st year King of Babylon, King of lands? From 1st year to 10th year King of Persia & Media, King of Babylon and of lands, Master of Crowns from 10th year to 21st year King of lands, Lord of the Two Lands. The years indicated in those documents have been understood as years of reign when in fact they are years of domination (months/days usually unspecified). 23a.

A study showed that the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes had been shifted by 10 years with respect to astronomical dates 17 giving rise to different inter-calations during the reigns of Darius & Xerxes (Gertoux: 2018, 179-206; 2020, 273-279). From 525 BC Egypt became a Persian satrapy but most scribes were Egyptians or Jews. Persian officials at Elephantine were familiar with three kinds of lunar calendar, Elamite, Old-Persian & Babylonian. Jewish scribes at Elephantine were familiar with different calendars, but used a calendar based on Babylonian calendars after their return to Judea from Babylon. A Babylonian chronology est. by Claudius Ptolemy was confirmed by BM 34576 tablet (King List dated 99 BC). A study of all tablets (contracts/heiroglyphs) dated from 626–331 BC was published (Parker, Dubberstein: 1956) and showed that all durations in the Achaemenid period agreed with the Babylonian royal lists, providing several short co-regencies were admitted shortly before & during an enthronement of the new king. #24

17 Babylonian astronomers classified lunar eclipses according to an 18-year Saros cycle, as they noticed that astronomical phenomena were reproduced identically in the 19th year of the solar cycle and almost identically in the 11th year (within a day). The 19 solar years last 6939.6 days = 19×365.24219 days and correspond exactly to 19 lunar years plus 7 intercalary months,
lasting 6939.7 days = ([19×12]+7) x 29.530588 days. The 11 solar years last 4017.6 days = 11×365.24219 days and correspond to 11 lunar years plus 4 intercalary months, that last 4016.2 days = ([11×12]+4) x 29.530588 days. With these astronomical cycles the two lunar eclipses of 475 BC (1st total, 2nd partial) were reproduced in 465 BC, but in reverse order (partial then total).

These Repeating Matching luni-solar eclipses happen to align with the last decade of Xerxes I’ reign, that opened in 480BC. For example, the two lunar eclipses of 475 BC were exactly reproduced in 457 BC on 6th July (total) and
31 December (partial). These adjustments made by Babylonian astronomers altered times in the chronology of Artaxerxes and Xerxes’ reigns, including the Metonic cycle of the intercalary years. The 19-year cycle; a mathematical cycle synchronizing 19 lunar years with 19 solar years by adding intercalary months, a 2nd Adar mo. (XIIa) or 2nd Ulul month (VIb), in 7 years of a 19-year cycle (3A, 6A, 8A, 11A, 14A, 17U, 19A). But, this 19-year metonic cycle, based on observations, not calculations (Steele: 2007, 121-123) and computed data in diaries (purely computational, not a combo observed & predictive methods) that appeared prior to 350 BC.#25

As the Egyptian calendar had 12 months of 30 days, plus 5 days at the end of the year (365 days), called epagomenon in Greek, it was not lunar (around 354 days). In Elephantine the main system of dating was the Egyptian calendar (civil), but as numerous religious festivals in Egypt were based on lunar phases a lunar calendar was used to fix these dates. The Jews (after 587 BC), then the Persians (after 525 BC), naturally used this calendar for their own religious festivals based on a lunar calendar (ie. Jewish Passover). The language of administration being either Egyptian or Persian, it was necessary to convert the names of the Egyptian lunar months to the common language understood by all: Aramaic. For example, the Jews converted into Aramaic the name of the months of their Hebrew calendar: « It came about that in the 4th year of Darius (…) on the 4th [day] of the 9th month, [that is] in Kislev » (Za 7:1). There was the same situation in Egypt, for example, an Elephantine Papyri (B24) is dated: « [17] Thoth, which is 17 Kislev, year 21 (of Xerxes), accession year of Artaxerxes » (Porten: 1996, 164-165). As Xerxes died on 14/V/21 (24 August) in 475 BC, the 1st Thoth (I Akhet 1) in 475 BC is dated 20 December and 17 Thoth on 5 January 474 BC.#26

1st Thoth in 475 BC thus links to 20 December in Julian calendar. With astron software (https://promenade.imcce.fr/fr/pages4/441.html), we find on 20th Dec
–474* (= 475 BC) there was a full moon at 18:20 UT (Universal Time), or at 20:30 Local Time (LT = UT + 2:10) in Elephantine. On Kislev 1 on a lunar calendar in Elephantine thus coincided with the full moon of 20 Dec. in 475 BC. To calculate the 1st Kislev (= 1/IX) of the Babylonian lunar calendar we must first calculate the 1st Tishri (1/VII) coinciding with the 1st lunar crescent after the autumnal equinox on 29 September 01:00 UT in –474*

(https://promenade.imcce.fr/fr/pages4/439.html). The 1st astronomical lunar crescent (day after the astronomical new moon) after 29 September is that of 8 October 22:11 UT (= 1/VII). It is possible to calculate the 1st lunar day of the following months: 7 Nov. 09:17 UT (= 1/VIII), 6 December 20:22 UT (= 1/IX). The coincidences between observed lunar days & calendar dates are thus perfect. In 475 BC (= -474*): 1 Kislimu (Babylon calendar) = 6 December (in Babylon) 1 Kislev (Egyptian lunar calendar) = 20 December (Elephantine). The 20 records from Elephantine with a double date enable us to reconstruct a chronology of the reigns of the 27th dynasty. The papyrus B23 is dated: «Year 15 [of Xerxes] 18 Elul, thus the 1st lunar day is dated a full moon in 481 BC (30 August). The 11 Pahons or I Shemu 11 fits exactly to day 11: Papyrus year Lunar date on the Egyptian calendar BC 1st lunar day Full moon Xerxes I 15 1 Elul 29 Aug. 30 Aug. Papyrus B23 15 18 Elul 28 Pahons (= 11 + 17) 15 Sept. 481.

These 2 brief rebellions to start Xerxes’ reign confirm his co–regency

during the accession in his 1st year of reign, Xerxes was welcomed by the Babylonians and the two Babylonian revolts, just after Darius’ death, imply that Xerxes’ accession could not have occured at the time. Plutarch, confirms the account of Ctesias, saying that after the death of Darius the kingdom of Xerxes was challenged in a climate of revolt (very different from the period of accession 10 years earlier): When Xerxes was declared king, Arimenes immediately did him homage, crowning him; as Xerxes gave him the next

place to himself. Being offended with the Babylonians, who rebelled, and having overcome them, he forbade them weapons (Sayings of kings and commanders 173c). If Arimenes disputed the kingdom of Xerxes that means he (Xerxes) was already king. In addition, a Babylonian revolt early in his reign, visibly worried Babylon’s scribes, as we read in a trilingual inscription at Persepolis: King Xerxes says: When I became king, among the nations that are written above, it is one that rebelled, as Ahuramazda gave me his support and thanks to Ahuramazda I beat these people and I put it back in its place #26. Xerxes does not name Babylon as most likely this old people constituted a prestigious historical foundation of Achaemenid power, so it was embarrassing to admit such an insurrection. The translation of the Babylonian inscription is also indicative of this awkwardness as it replaces the offending people by “these countries have rebelled,” combining the revolt that occured at the time of Darius with the rebels, who were the two Babylonians: Nebuchadnezzar III and Nebuchadnezzar IV. The information from Ctesias and Plutarch overlap, making it possible to locate two brief reigns of Bel–šimânni and Šamaš–erîba in the year 485 BC or early in an effective reign of Xerxes after Darius’ death.

Conclusion & Summary

Footnotes

1.https://www.academia.edu/44915277/Intercalations_during_the_co_regency_of_Xerxes_with_Darius_I_in_NABU_2020_4_pp_273_279?email_work_card=reading-history]
2. IBID
3. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312069819_Dating_the_reigns_of_Xerxes_and_Artaxerxes]. Gerard Gertoux.
4. IBID
5. IBID
6. IBID
7. IBID
7a. Intercalations during the co-regency of Xerxes with Darius I, in NABU 2020-4, pp. 273-279 By Gerard GERTOUX
7b. Halley’s Bible Handbook, p. 218, Henry H. Halley
8. IBID, p. 218
8a. IBID ppg. 218-219
8b. http://www.achemenet.com/en/results/?q=Susa
8b1. https://www.livius.org/articles/place/susa/susa-photos/susa-apadana/
8c. http://www.achemenet.com/en/results/?q=Susa
8c1. IBID
8d. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/xph/
8e. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_Zion
8f. Strong’s Concordance [#4899-mashiyach], James Strong
8g. https://www.thetorah.com/article/if-achashverosh-is-xerxes-is-esther-his-wife-amestris?
8h. Encyclopedia Judaica Glossary definition of Midrash.
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/aggadah
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Daniel
11a. https://www.onepagebiblesummary.com/pad/pad_01.php
12. Herodotus 7.61.2
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amestris
14. (Herodotus-Histories 7.61.2, 9.109-l2)
15. Prayer & Emotion in the Septuagint of Esther“ Ego, B. (2006) Esther, Brill Online.
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amestris
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrash#cite_note-9
18. https://www.thetorah.com/article/ahasuerus-and-vashti-the-story-megillat-esther-does-not-tell-you
19. https://www.thetorah.com/article/if-achashverosh-is-xerxes-is-esther-his-wife-amestris
19a. [https://continuum.fas.harvard.edu/an-occlusion-of-xerxes-in-medieval-persian-epic/]
20. https://www.thetorah.com/article/if-achashverosh-is-xerxes-is-esther-his-wife-amestris
21. https://www.livius.org/articles/place/babylon/etemenanki/
21a. Fig. 3-Ziggarat of Susa-picture credit. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chogha_Zanbil#/media/File:jpg]
21b. (Parrot 1949: 37–50) Ziggurats et Tour de Babel. Paris: Albin Michel.
21c. (Parrot 1949: 22–24.; Wiseman 1991: 71) Nebuchadrezzar and Babylon. The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy. Oxford: Oxford University Press
21d. (George 2005/2006: 75, 78; The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts. AfOr 51: 75–95. (Allinger-Csollich 1998: 290–94).
21e. (Frankford 1970: 79) The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. 4th edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin
21f. (George 2005/2006: 75, 77, 78, 79, 86; Allinger-Csollich 1998: 290–94). The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts. AfOr 51: 75–95.
21.g [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312069819_Dating_the_reigns_of_Xerxes_and_Artaxerxes]. Gerard Gertoux
21h. IBID
22. IBID
23. (Posener: 1936, 92, 120-124, 162) Posener’s collection of hieroglyphic inscriptions
23a. (Posener: 1936, 92, 120-124, 162)
24. BABYLONIAN CHRONOLOGY, 626 B.C.-A.D. 75 Parker, Dubberstein: 1956
25. (Rochberg-Halton: 1991, 107-120).
26. Bezalel Porten – The Elephantine Papyri in English

https://about.jstor.org/terms XERXES AND THE BOOK OF ESTHER-LITTMAN

–

Is there Bible Evidence for an Eclipse with Jonah?

In our recently completed 2023 OT History Class we presented Biblical prophets chronologically instead of canonically, which brought out the evolution in the revelation regarding Messianic prophecy and Jewish Eschatology. Here are some samples of Rev. Nessle’s comments in a recent email from him:

From Jon’s Email 1/16/24

“Then in the Old Testament History class we followed the development of Messianic Prophecy when we re-ordered the Prophets in chronological order instead of canonical order. Then we clearly saw how Jonah foresaw the doom of Israel but shirked his responsibility to prophesy against Nineveh for fear that they might obey and not be destroyed. Well, God made sure the message was delivered on schedule even after Jonah had been dead for 3 days and 3 nights! God had to pull a rabbit out of a hat to get the job done, or better said, pull a prophet out of a fish! Why? Because He had an appointment to keep! God had to stay on schedule. They did repent because Rene Fretz pointed out the possibility that God also sent a coinciding sign of a Solar Eclipse. It went right over Nineveh that decade! I think it coincided! Wow!

Then after Jonah, came the prophet that didn’t deserve to be named because he shut up. He clammed up in fear of King Amaziah and stopped prophesying. He just spoke his mind afterward. This disqualified that prophet. The Bible does not name disqualified prophets! After that it was up to the next prophet, Amos, who was the lowest of the low, without pedigree, not of the school of the prophets, a former pig farmer who stood up and became enshrined as the prophet that wouldn’t shut up! He spoke the answer to the burning question of that day. If God promised the kingdom to David’s seed, how can that come to pass if the Assyrians are going to wipe us out? Then we saw the progression and growth of Jewish eschatology and Messianic prophecy that expanded from Amos’ seed through prophet after prophet, in chronological order, until it fully blossomed with Isaiah, who spoke so much Messianic prophecy that the book of Isaiah is said to be the 5^th Gospel!”

Jon Continued; “Well, that got me thinking and I realized something. I wondered if there was anything in the book of Jonah that could be linked with an eclipse. This was because it was very unusual that a foreign nation like Assyria with a different pagan religion would receive and repent to a message given by Jonah, an unknown prophet to them… I was thinking the Eclipse had to coincide. But how could I prove that? Then I realized that God did do just that! In Jonah 4:5 Jonah made a booth outside the city to see what would become of it. When he complained about the heat, God prepared a gourd that grew which gave him shade. I was looking for evidence of an eclipse which shaded the sun. Here in that very context is an allegory regarding
a gourd that does just that! Wow! I think there is a connection. Maybe if some of those verbs in verses 6 and 7 have astronomical overtones that would really nail it! I am thinking that this was an allegory to an eclipse, explained in terms an ancient man would understand. If God told Jonah the Astro-Physics details, he would not have understood. If this is true, then we have a fixed date for Jonah!” Love ya! Jon

This inspired email from Jon Nessle got me moving to delve into the text of Jonah, to see what the Scriptural details may tell us in support of an eclipse allegory. As we will see, there are verbs in this context having astronomical overtones, but it might help if they occurred on the same day, as the eclipse, since I’m not aware of eclipses lasting beyond a single day! With this in mind, lets take a look at the record of Jonah, with this evidence of an allegory like this in mind, too see if it stacks up.

Jonah’s story is unique since the record of most prophets entails their ministry and background, including the impact of their divine message and how their oracle and vision fits in the prophetic line of Israel, and Scriptural canon. Jonah’s record is different, since being a so-called “reluctant prophet,” it relates the details in this episode where a prophet tries to escape the Godly calling on his life, to cry against the wickedness of Nineveh, by detouring from Nineveh, hopping a slow boat in the opposite direction to the Spanish Riviera, [Tarshish]. As Jonah learns, its not smart to contradict the Almighty Creator, [Jon. 1:9] which put Jonah’s passage in jeopardy of shipwreck. Even the ship’s crew had the common sense to know this was a bad idea, [Jon. 1:10-16] and if any of this crew was not God-fearing before this voyage, none were left thereafter, [Jon. 1:15-16]. This fits with a theme of this book of the Bible, that God’s loving care extends not only to Israel, but the to the Gentile nations also! Jonah told the crew to cast him overboard, then he disclosed that he was the reason their ship was in danger, [Jon. 1:11-12]. God then sent a great fish to swallow Jonah, where he spent 3 days and nights in the belly of the fish. His prayer out of the fish’s belly-called the “belly of hell,” is the Hebrew word for the grave: [H7585-sheol]. #1 This was the same period Jesus spent in the heart of the earth after his death and crucifixion, [Matt. 12:40-41]. This tells us also that Jonah died during this period, until he recalled his prayer and commitment to God, who spoke to the fish to vomit Jonah out on dry land, [Jon. 2:10]. At this point, Jonah got what many of us in life need, his second chance to obey God’s calling on his life, to go to Nineveh and preach his message, [Jon. 3:1-4]

From my June blog in 2017; I referenced research on the impact of an eclipse over Nineveh that may have coincided with Jonah’s ministry, without going into much detail. “In 765 B.C, a plague broke out in Nineveh where even the king was not able to go out to war, as was custom. Next came a civil war and another plague!” The first plague referred to here occurred in 765 BC, followed by the civil war that started in 763, the same year as the eclipse.

“An archaeological find of cuneiform tablets was uncovered in the 19th century describing events in Nineveh. A famous eclipse mentioned in the tablets was known as the Bur-Sagale eclipse, which is verified by NASA as occurring on June 15, 763 BC. The path of totality passed very near Nineveh, which was located 4 mi. north of modern day Mosul and Erbil in Iraq. God declared the Sun and the Moon were for signs, and now the Ninevites saw evidence of God’s judgment coming even before Jonah’s arrival. When Jonah did show up, the Ninevites were ripe for repentance.” #2

Figure 1. The June 15th, 763 BC Bur-Sagale Eclipse over Nineveh. #3

Julian calendar does not include the year 0, so the year 1 BC[1] is followed by the year 1 AD. This is awkward for arithmetic calculations. All pages in this web site employ the astronomical numbering system for dates (they use the year 0). Years prior to the year 0 are represented by a negative sign [–]. Historians should note that there is a difference of one year between astronomical dates and BCE dates. Thus, the astronomical year 0 corresponds to 1 BCE, and year -100 corresponds to 101 BC, etc. This adds a year to the date above making it June 15th, 763 BC. #4

NASA graphic showing the path of the solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC. The eclipse would have been seen as total in the area between the blue lines. The site of ancient Nineveh (the city) is about four miles northeast of the center of the modern city of Mosul, Iraq; the province of Nineveh occupied a considerably larger territory. If this NASA reconstruction is correct, the eclipse would have been observed as only partial in the city, but total just a few miles further north. The fact that modern astronomical programs show the eclipse as only partial in the city itself has led some investigators to surmise that the eclipse mentioned as occurring in the eponym of Bur-Sagale was some other eclipse at another date. This is usually done to support alternative biblical chronologies that do not agree with the conventional interpretation of the Assyrian Eponym Canon (AEC). However, it is precisely in the 8th century BC that the AEC is most assured of being correct, because various copies of the AEC have been found that overlap this time, and these in turn overlap the reigns of the kings of Assyria and Babylon given in Ptolemy’s Canon, which begins in 747 BC. Map from NASA, #5

We know that the Prophet Jonah ministered during the reign of King Ashur-Dan III since the Bible mentions him in [2 Kings 14:23-5], placing his ministry during the reign of King Jeroboam II of Israel. Since this solar eclipse was a most noteworthy highlight occurring in the reign of Ashur-Dan III, certain theologians suggest that the Bur-Sagle eclipse was a primary reason that the people of Nineveh were so ready to repent upon hearing Jonah’s message of judgment. “According to E.R. Thiele’s chronology, Jeroboam II was sole ruler of Israel between the years 782-753 BC, while Ashur-Dan III was king of Assyria between 772-755 BC.” #6 An aim of this study is to look for evidence of Jonah’s entry into Nineveh that may coincide with this eclipse.

Ashur-dan III’s reign was particularly difficult. Much of his reign was spent putting down revolts. These revolts were perhaps the result of the plague epidemics sweeping Assyria and the Bur-Sagale solar eclipse on 15 June 763 BC; both the epidemics and the eclipse could have been interpreted by the Assyrian populace as the gods withdrawing their divine support for Ashur-dan’s rule. The Assyrian empire had entered a period of decline, experiencing a plague in 765 BC, a peasant revolt from 763 to 759 BC, and a second plague in 759 BC. The Bur–Sagale eclipse, occurred in the midst of these troubled years, in 763 B.C. We don’t know the exact timing of Jonah’s visit to Nineveh, but we do know from the Biblical record that this was the time period during which he prophesied (2 Kings 14:25).

Jonah 3:3-4 tells us it took Jonah 3 days to navigate the streets of Nineveh to deliver his message of repentance, that Nineveh would be judged within 40 days, to change their ways, a biblical number symbolic for probation, as the 40 years Israel spent in the wilderness, and the 40 days of rain during Noah’s Flood. Not only the general population declared a fast [Jon. 3:5] but also the King published a decree enforcing a fast for both man and beast, to turn from their evil ways, God saw their change and repented the evil that He had previously pronounced, witholding His judgment.

If we fast forward to the celestial signs just before the birth of Christ, on August 12th, 3 BC, the first Jupiter-Venus union in Leo framing Christ’s birth occurred on Elul 1 on the Hebrew Calendar, opening a Season of Repentance. Jesus’ birth on Sept. 11th the month after this Aug. 12th union, on Tishri 1-Hebrew New Years Day, was followed by Yom Kippur on Tishri 10, or Sept. 19th that year, marked 40 days to the Day of Atonement, from Elul 1.

In the Great Sign of Revelation 12, a 400-day [40×10] link was found to Yom Kippur 2017 via a conjunction of Venus and Jupiter on August 27, 2016. But, when we view the Pan-American Total Solar Eclipse of Aug. 21, 2017, the eclipse was 40 days before Yom Kippur 2017, on Sept. 30th. Before the modern Hebrew Calendar, from Elul 1 till the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) was 40 days, known as the “Season of Repentance.” The total solar eclipse on August 21, 2017 begins this traditional 40-day Season of Repentance. The Season of Repentance is a call to repent before the Day of the Lord. Jewish tradition says those written in the Book of Life will be resurrected on the Feast of Trumpets. Elul is the month of repentance on the Jewish calendar, the time of turning in all the tithes to the storehouse. A month later, during the Days of Awe from Rosh Hashanah on Tishri 1 and Yom Kippur on Tishri 10, shows the record of celestial events marking Christ’s birth from Rev. 12.:1-2. A key chronological note to recognize here if viewed in isolation that if there was an eclipse that “coincided” with Jonah’s visit to Nineveh, it likely occurred by this time, or even to open the 40-day season of repentance, as Jonah prophesied in Nineveh. But there is also historical context to be aware of. “The eclipse was not the only calamity during Ashur-Dan’s reign. The AEC recounts a plague in 765, the eclipse and a revolt in the city of Ashur in 763, a revolt in Ashur again in 762, a revolt in Arrapha in 761 and 760, and a plague plus a revolt in the city of Guzana in 759. 758 BC was marked by a campaign against Guzana and then “peace in the land,” after which the king remained “in the land” for the next two years. Although there were military campaigns in 755, 754, 749, and 748, the AEC does not list any misfortune until the city of Calah revolted in 746 BC, the 9th year of Ashur-Dan’s brother and successor, Ashur-Nirari V. The Assyrians regarded plagues and eclipses as divine judgments for the whole land, #7 (Wiseman 1979: 44). The plague of 765, followed by a revolt and eclipse in 763 and then revolts in the following four years would only confirm in the mind of the Assyrians that they were under divine verdict. It is appealing to think that the “year of peace” in 758 and the lack of revolts and plagues in the following 11 years were a consequence of God’s mercy because of the repentance of the nation. If so, this could date Jonah’s visit at Nineveh to 759 or 758 BC.”#8

This view fits with God’s Grace and Mercy to acknowledge the repentance of the Ninevites, supported by the historical record. This is also why Jonah’s displeasure and great anger at God’s forgiveness of the Ninevites, shows how far out of line his thinking was in pronouncing judgment on God’s forgiveness, which was the goal of Jonah’s mission in the first place. This history probably is the best evidence that the eclipse may not have coincided with Jonah’s visit to Nineveh, but preceded it by 3-4 years, as we would expect the repentance of the city, to effect a change in their misfortune. The record in Jonah 4:4-11 is as follows;

⁴Then said the Lord, Doest thou well to be angry? ⁵So Jonah went out of the city, and sat on the east side of the city, and there made him a booth, and sat under it in the shadow, till he might see what would become of the city. ⁶And the Lord God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad of the gourd. ⁷But God prepared a worm when the morning rose the next day, and it smote the gourd that it withered. ⁸And it came to pass, when the sun did arise, that God prepared a vehement east wind; and the sun beat upon the head of Jonah, that he fainted, and wished in himself to die, and said, It is better for me to die than to live. ⁹And God said to Jonah, Doest thou well to be angry for the gourd? And he said, I do well to be angry, even unto death. ¹⁰Then said the Lord, Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the which thou hast not labored, neither made it grow; which came up in a night, and perished in a night: ¹¹And should not I spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than six-score thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand; and also much cattle?

The word for “booth” in Jonah 4:5 is [H5521-cukkah; a temporary abode, hut or tent, as the booths the Feast of Tabernacles, Levi. 23:40-43, Deut. 16:30, Isa. 4:6]

It is important to point out here the three potential sources that Jonah had in this record to shade him from the sun’s intense heat. The word for “shadow” in vs. 5 and 6 are the same Hebrew word [H6738-tsel] lit. or fig. This is also the same Hebrew word used in [2 Kings 20:10-11, Isa. 38:8] for the astronomical shadow that went down 10 degrees in the miracle of Ahaz’ Sundial. E.W. Bullinger teaches this word for “shadow” in Jonah 4:5-6 [H6738-tsel] is the figure of speech called “paranomasia” or rhyming words, or the repetition of words similar in sound, but not necessarily in sense, [p.307, 317]. #9 In this potential allegory, the plant [gourd] ostensibly representing a solar eclipse, was stricken by the worm [Jon. 4:7] as it smote [H5221] the gourd to the end it withered, [H3001–yabesh]. Strong’s says “yabesh“ means to be ashamed, confused or disappointed, also to dry up or wither as herbage.” #10 A Biblical sample of this kind of language refers to a solar eclipse. In Isa. 24:23 we find this once again expressed by Bullinger as the figure “Antimereia” of the adjective the exchange of one part of speech for another. #11

Isa. 24:23 says;

²³Then the moon shall be confounded, and the sun ashamed, when the Lord of hosts shall reign in mount Zion, and in Jerusalem, and before His ancients gloriously.

This seems to support the idea of the gourd as an allegory for a solar eclipse as it is found in this record. It also is possible that a solar eclipse may have been accompanied by the growth of the gourd, at the same time outlasting an eclipse– that normally only last a few minutes, to 3-5 hours, in a single day providing Jonah added relief from the Sun. This notion is supported by Jonah 4:7 dictated by the diurnal solar cycle when “the morning rose the next day.” an eclipse of the Sun is not historically known to last beyond a day, and with the lunar blockage of the sun completed the previous day, the gourd was not withered by the worm until the next day. With both the shading of the gourd and the Moon no longer stopping the sun, the sunlight beat [H5221]-same word as “smote” in v.7 which can be either lethal [90x] as the worm struck a lethal blow to the gourd, or a non-lethal blow; [Ex. 21:12, Josh. 10:26].

This is not only a personification, where in the Sun and Moon are given human qualities, but also the related figure of prosopopeia, when the absent are spoken of as present, the dead as alive, or anything is addressed as a person.#12 [p.861] This language is indicative of both solar and lunar eclipses when Sunlight is blocked by the Moon, or the Earth-shadow turns the lunar surface red-as with
a blood moon. This could have fulfilled an allegory in Jon. 4:6 where the Lord made a gourd to shadow over Jonah’s head to deliver [H5337–natsal] Jonah from his grief. This rhyming word with shadow, [H6738-tsel] in Jonah 4:5-6 shows the Lord’s potential act to deliver Jonah from the Sun’s intense heat by shading him with a solar eclipse, where the Moon blocks the sunlight either partially or totally. The sun’s unblocked heat combined with the intense east wind beat down on the Jonah’s head, that he fainted, and begged his death by sunstroke. Here we find two possible sources of shade over Jonah, so where is the 3rd? If we recall from Jon. 4:5 he built himself a booth, the kind of which is the same as those built by the Jews for the Feast of Tabernacles. During this feast the Jews honored God not only as their provider, but their deliverer also, just as God had done for Jonah with the fish. As Isa. 4:6 tells us;

⁶And there shall be a tabernacle for a shadow in the daytime from the heat, and for a place of refuge, and for a covert from storm and from rain.

The word for “shadow” in Isa. 4:6 above is the same as Jonah 4:5-6 [H6738]. This shows us that Jonah was angry at the loss of his shade, but God points out that Jonah was more concerned with the shade from the gourd and the eclipse than he was with the potential impact of the eclipse on the repentance of a city of 120,000 inhabitants in Nineveh. Jonah’s booth-building during the Tabernacles Feast, tells us these events took place in the month Tishri, our Sept.-Oct. and that Jonah also had his personal repentance to make right with God, for disobeying His call to preach to Nineveh. It also establishes the link pointed out above to the 40-days of Repentance and the birth of Christ, our intercessor and mediator of our repentance.

Added astronomically related verses in this context are found in Isaiah 40; 45:12, 34:4, Jer. 33:22, Dan. 8:10, Mt. 24:29]

Isa. 40:22-26

²¹Have ye not known? Have ye not heard? Hath it not been told you from the beginning? have ye not understood from the foundations of the earth? ²²It is
He that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers; that stretches out the heavens as a curtain, and spreads them out as a tent to dwell in: ²³That bringeth the princes to nothing; he maketh the judges of the earth as vanity. ²⁴Yea, they shall not be planted; yea, they shall not be sown: yea, their stock shall not take root in the earth: and He shall also blow upon them, and they shall wither, [H3001] and the whirlwind shall take them away as stubble. ²⁵To whom then will ye liken me, or shall I be equal? saith the Holy One. ²⁶Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these things, that bringeth out their host by number: he calleth them all by names by the greatness of his might, for that He is strong in power; not one faileth. [cp. Ps. 147:4]

This Scripture not only includes the astronomical context as the Almighty Creator stretches out the heavens as a curtain, and spreads them out as a tent to dwell in: but also the botanical allegory related to princes and judges of the earth that are not planted or sown, whose stock takes no root and they wither, which is the same Hebrew word for “withered” as seen in Jonah 4:7, above.

The purpose of Jonah’s prophecy is to show the sovereignty of God at work in the life of an individual (the prophet Jonah), and his concern for His own people and that the way to avert national catastrophe is a concentrated outreach effort to all people. Jonah’s theme is God’s mercy to the individual (Jonah, a Jew), a group (the heathen sailors), the heathen world power (Assyria, a Gentile nation), and His people (Israel).

Jesus employed the repentance of the Ninevites to rebuke the Pharisees, thereby illustrating the hardness of the Pharisees’ hearts and their lack of repentance, (Matt. 12:38-41; Luke 11:29-32). The heathen city of Nineveh repented at the preaching of a reluctant prophet, but the Pharisees would not repent at the preaching of the greatest of all the prophets, in spite of over-whelming evidence that He was actually their Lord and Messiah. Jonah is a picture of Israel, who was chosen and commissioned by God to be His witness (Isa. 43:10-12; 44:8), who rebelled against His will (Exodus 32:1-4; Judges 2:11-19; Ezek. 6:1-5; Mark 7:6-9), but like Israel, was miraculously preserved by God through centuries of exile and dispersion to finally preach His truth; (Jer. 30:11; 31:35-37; Hosea 3:3-5; Rev. 7:1-8; 14:1-3).

As Tom Hobson, chair of Biblical Studies at Morthland College, observes:

The Assyrian nation was weak and in chaos in the decade around 760 BC…. They had one earthquake (one sign of divine wrath). There was a famine from 765-758 BC. Assyria was losing battles and losing territory to its enemies. There were domestic riots… Now was a perfect time for a prophet from far away to arrive on the scene and command a response. Is it possible that in His mercy, God not only planned the miracles to engineer Jonah’s visit to correspond with an impressive eclipse, but He also spun the heavenly bodies in perfect synchronization with these events to help convince Nineveh to repent. #13

According to the Assyrian writings cited by Wiseman, here’s what a solar eclipse would have meant to them: “the king will be deposed and killed, and a worthless fellow will seize the throne…rain from heaven will flood the land…the city walls will be destroyed.” The Assyrians tell us that these times called for, a solemn fast, and the king would hand over his throne to a substitute until the danger passed. At least once when there was a total solar eclipse, the Assyrians cried, “Nineveh shall be overthrown!” This has dual meaning of, “Nineveh shall be made to repent!”).#14

We can’t prove the hypothesis that Jonah showed up in Nineveh for the 763 BC eclipse, but this does not mean that this solar eclipse did not help produce the desired results of Nineveh’s repentance recorded in the Biblical account.
God miraculously brought Jonah to preach his message at exactly the right time for the people of Nineveh to listen to him. The Assyrian nation was weak and in chaos in the decade around 760 BC. They already had one earthquake (a sign of divine wrath). There is a possibility that Amos also refers to this earth-quake [Amos 1:1] since Amos was a contemporary of Jonah. There was a 7-year famine from 765-758 BC. While the Assyrians were losing battles and land to their enemies, there was internal strife and domestic riots. With all the unrest they were experiencing, they seemed primed to believe Jonah and his warning.

With the events from 765 BC- a revolt and eclipse in 763 and then revolts in the following four years would only confirm in the mind of the Assyrians that they were under divine displeasure. It would fit the spiritual timeline that the “year of peace” in 758 and a lack of rebellions and plagues in the next 11 years were a consequence of God’s mercy because of the repentance of the Nineveh. If so, this could date Jonah’s appearance at Nineveh to 759 or 758 BC.

The repentance of an entire pagan city the size of Nineveh would be a greater miracle than for Jonah to survive getting swallowed by a fish. Yes, such an experience was fatal for Jonah, but this was part of the miracle, which was completed over 700 years later when Jesus cited Jonah as a sign comparable to his own resurrection. If we believe the Bible’s account of Jonah’s survival inside the fish, then a greater miracle of the repentance of the entire pagan city of Nineveh is possible also, since they are part of the same miraculous narrative.

I’m thankful for Jon Nessle’s email as the impetus for this month’s blog, and pertinent questions it sparked regarding Jonah and this eclipse. As the Lord Jesus Christ is the mediator of our own repentance, I invite those who would like to take part in commenting on this study for group discussion.

God Bless!

Rene’

Footnotes

1. Strong’s Concordance, [H7585-sheol], James Strong
2. Read more at https://globalrumblings.blogspot.com/2016/11/the-sign-of-jonah-and-binding-of.html#JF4HXT0ur7boJ0rM.99
3. Five Millennium Canon of Solar Eclipses [Espenak & Meeus]
4. [http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap.php?Ecl=-07620615.]
5. [https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendar.html]
6. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. Edwin R. Thiele
7. THE TYNDALE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY LECTURE, 1977
JONAH 1 S NINEVEH By Donald J. Wiseman 1979: 44
8. https://biblearchaeology.org/research/biblical-chronologies/4517-how-lunar-and-solar-eclipses-shed-light-on-biblical-events
9. Figures of Speech used in the Bible, ppg. 307, 317. E.W. Bullinger
10. Strong’s Concordance, [H3001-yabesh], James Strong
11. Figures of Speech used in the Bible, pg. 495, E.W. Bullinger
12. IBID, [p.861]
13. (http://www.tyndalehouse.com/TynBul/Library/TynBull_1979_30_02_Wiseman_JonahsNineveh.pdf)
14. THE TYNDALE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY LECTURE, 1977
JONAH 1 S NINEVEH By Donald J. Wiseman 1979: 44